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ANTHROPOLOGICAL PAPERS 

OF THE ^ / / 

American Museum of Natural 
History. 

Vol. IX, Part 1. 



NOTES ON THE EASTERN CREE AND NORTHERN 
SAULTEAUX. 



BY 
ALANSON SKINNER 



NEW YORK: 

Published by Order of the Trustees. 

1911. 



Mofwe:rap»i 



ANTHROPOLOGICAL PAPERS 

OF THE 

American Museum of Natural History 



Vol. IX, Part I. 



NOTES OX THE EASTERX CREE AXD XORTHERN 
SAULTEAUX. 

By Alaxsox Skixxer. 

CONTEXTS. 



INTRODUCTION .... 
I. THE EASTERN CREE 

HABITATIONS .... 

The Conical Lodge 

Dome-.shaped Lodge 

The Two-Fire Wigwam . 

Sweat Lodge .... 
CLOTHING AND TOILETTES . 

Men's Clothing 

Women's Garments 

Articles Common to both Sexes 

Mittens 

Combs ..... 

Facial Painting 

Tattooing 

Facial Scarification 

Method of Weariiig the Hair 

Earrings ..... 
FOODS AND THEIR PREPARATION 

Hunting ..... 

Fishing ..... 

Meats 

Vegetable Foods 

Cooking and Utensils 

Fire Making .... 



Page. 
7 
S 
12 
12 
13 
14 
14 
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15 
18 
20 
21 
21 
21 
23 
23 
23 
24 
24 
25 
27 
28 
30 
30 
33 



1 



Anthropological Papers American Museum of Natural History. [Vol. IX, 



TANNING .... 
WEAVING .... 
GAMES AND AMUSEMENTS 

The Cup and Pin Game 

Bows and Slings 

The Otter Hunting Game 

The War Game 

The Dart Game 

Caribou Hunting Game 

Goose Hunting Game 

Square Game . 

Football . 

Smoking . 
DANCES 

The War Dance 

The Conjuring Dance 

The Feasting or Greeting Dance 

The Deer (Caribou) Dance 

The Bear Dance 

Mide Dance . 
MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS 
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION 
SIGNS AND SIGNALS 
DIVISIONS OF TIME 
MISCELLANEOUS 

Leg-skin Bags 

Grooved Stone Axes 

Crooked Knives 

Stone Knives . 
ART .... 
SOCIAL ORGANIZATION 

Marriage 
RELIGION . 

Shamanism 
Hunting Customs . 
DOCTORS AND MEDICINES 
WAR CUSTOMS . 
MORTUARY CUSTOMS 
SOME NOTES ON FOLKLORE 

WiSAGATCAK . 

Wemishus 

The Son of Aiqswe 

TcIgibis, the Hell Diver 

MisHi Shigak, Big Skunk 

Why James Bay is Salt 

The Adventures of Tcikapis (Rupert's House 

The Adventures of Tcikapis (Albanj' Ver 

The Virgin Birth .... 

The Beaver Wife .... 



Version) 



1911. 



Skinner, The Eastern Cree. 



The Burning of the World 
Kanweo and the Cannibals 
Origin of the Races of Man 
The Wolf and the Otter . 
The Legend of Stag Rock 
The Stars that Married Sisters 
A "Conjuring Story" 
The Cannibals .... 
The Legend of Iroquois Falls 
IL THE NORTHERN SAULTEAUX 
HABITATIONS .... 
The Conical Lodge 
Sweating Lodge or Sudatory . 
Conjuring Houses 
CLOTHING AND TOILETTES 
Method of Wearing the Hair 
Personal Ornamentation 
MANUFACTURES 
Tanning . 
Weaving and Sewing 
Quill Work 
Dyes and Paints 
Pottery 

Use of Birchbark 
Canoe Making 
Miscellaneous 
PREPARATION OF FOOD 
Hunting and Fishing 
Wild Rice Culture 
Preserved Berries 
Pemmican 
Fire-Making 
AMUSEMENTS . 
Dances and Music 
Pipes and Smoking 
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION 
SIGNS AND SIGNALS 
MONTHS AND SEASONS 
DIRECTIONS AND WEATHER CUS 
ART .... 
SOCIAL ORGANIZATION 
Marriage 

Menstrual Customs 
RELIGION . 

Doctors and Medicines 
Hunting Customs 
WAR .... 
MORTUARY CUSTOMS 



TOMS 



Page. 
•107 
108 
112 
112 
113 
113 
113 
114 
115 
117 
119 
119 
120 
120 
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124 
125 
125 
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130 
130 
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131 
132. 
133 
134 
137 
138 
138 
138 
139 

142 

143 

144 

146 

147 

147 

148 

149 

1.50 

1.52 

152 

160 

162 

164 

166 



Aiilhropolof/ical Papers American Museum of Xatural History. \\o\. XI, 



NORTHERN SAULTEAUX TALES . 

Omishus 

WisEkejack .... 

BIBLIOGRAPHY .... 



Page. 
168 
168 
173 
176 



ILLUSTRATIONS. 

Plates. 

i. Doiu('-.slun)ed Lodge, Cree of Rupert's House. 

Drying Moose Meat, Sandy Lake, Ontaiio. 
2. Cree Bark Lodge, Rupert's House. 



Text Figures. 

1. Map showing the Distribution of the Eastern Cree and Saulteau.x 

2. Hooded Coat of Caribou Skin, front and back 

3. Coat of Woven Rabbitskins . 
4 Decorated Coat ..... 
o Design on a Woman's Legging 

6. Moccasin Types .... 

7. Types of Face Decoration 

8. Wooden Spoon 

9. Net Floats for winter Lse 

10. Spoons for eating Fish .... 

11. Small Wooden Cup .... 

12. Model of a Tray 

13. Firedrill and Carrying Bag 

14. Semilunar Knife for scraping Skins 

15. Flesher and Beaming Tool 

16. Pipe from Eastmain River 

17. Pipe Bowl of Stone .... 

18. A Drvun ...... 

19. A Rattle ...... 

20. Dog Harness 

21. A Toboggan ...... 

22. Snowshoes ...... 

23. Needle for netting Snowshoes 

24. The Maxilla of a Lynx for untying Snowshoc 
2.5. A Cradle 

26. A Miniature Basket 

27. A decorated Basket made of Birchtjark 

28. Bag made of Caribou Leg-skins 

29. Bag made of Caribou Ears 

30. Needle Case 

31. A snow Shovel 



Page. 
10 
16 
17 
IS 
19 
20 
22 
26 
2S 
31 
31 
32 
32 
33 
34 
39 
40 
41 
42 
44 
44 
45 
45 
45 
46 
46 
46 
50 
51 
51 
51 



1911. 



Skinner, The Eastern Cree. 



mgs 



32. A Knife made of Beaver Teeth 

33. A crooked Knife 

34. Snow Spectacles 

35. A Series of painted Designs 

36. A bear's claw Trophy 

37. Bears' Skulls with Ceremonial Mar 

38. A String of Bearskin Charms 

39. A Ring of Bear Claws . 
40 A Series of hunting Charms . 

41. Types of Saulteaux Moccasins 

42. Cree skinning Tool 

43. A Beaming Tool 

44. Needle and Thread 

45. Detail of a Straw Mat . 

46. A Bag of Cedar Bark 

47. Basket of unusual Technique 

48. A Rogan for storing Dried Meat 

49. A Puzzle of Hoop and Rings 

50. A Buzzer of Bone . 

51. A Top .... 

52. A Drum and Stick 

53. Stone-headed Pipes 

54. Two Types of Snowshoes 

55. A decorated Birchbark Basket 

56. A bear Pole. Drawn from a Photograph 



Page. 

52 

52 

52 

54 

69 

70 

72 

72 

74 

123 

125 

126 

127 

127 

128 

129 

134 

139 

140 

141 

142 

143 

145 

149 

162 



INTRODUCTION. 

The data presented in the following papers consist of a series of field 
notes collected by the writer on two trips to Northern Canada. The first 
of these, in the summer of 1908, was made by canoe, from ^Nlissanabie, 
a point some sixty miles north of Lake Superior on the Canadian Pacific 
Railway, down the Missanabie River to James Bay, thence northeast to 
Eastmain River, the southern boundary line of Ungava. At the various 
posts of the Hudson's Bay Company which we visited en route, we met 
most of the members of the Woods Cree bands of the vicinity, who had 
come from their far-off hunting grounds to barter their winter's catch of 
furs. In this way, we were able to interview many Indians residing at 
remote points in the Ungava wilderness, at Lake Nitchequon, and even 
beyond. 

The following summer we entered the northern forests at Dinorwic, 
west of Lake Superior, and first visited the scattered Ojibway camps on 
Sandy Lake, Lac Seul, Lake St. Joseph and Lake Eabamet and then de- 
scended the Albany River for its entire length reaching the Cree stationed 
at Fort Albany on James Bay, where farther research was carried on. 

The aggregate distance covered during the two trips was some 2400 
miles, all of which was traveled by canoe or on foot with two half-breed 
guides. Owing to the roughness of the country, the exigencies of the 
weather- the scarcity of food, the lack of good interpreters, and other causes, 
there is still much to be desired in the fullness and condition of these papers 
The press of other work has forced their publication in this cmde, unfinished 
form, rather than to shelve them away to be forgotten. 

New York, 

October, 19n. 



Anthropological Papers American Museum of Natural History. [Vol. IX, 



I. THE EASTERN CREE. 

The habitat of the great Algonkin tribe known as the Cree, or Kniste- 
naux, extends from Lake Xitchequon, in the interior of Labrador on the 
northeast, to Lake Athabaska on the northwest. The western hmit of 
their territory is approximately at the foothills of the Canadian Rockies, 
while the southern boundary may be drawn from this point, touching the 
northern end of Lake Winnipeg and passing on to Lake Alistassini. The 
body politic of the tribe is made up of two great divisions: the Plains Cree 
of the Manitoba and Saskatchewan prairies ; and the Wood, or Swamp Cree, 
or Maskegon. These branches are further sub-divided into local groups. 
The two great divisions differ in their methods of life and material culture 
but are linguistically related. 

The Woods Cree, or Maskegon, are now to be found in interior Labrador 
as far north and east as Lakes Nitchequon and Mistassini. They hold the 
shores of James Bay, west of York Factory on Hudson's Bay, then inland 
as far west as the Peace River and its tributary, the Loon River. Their 
southern boundary is comprised by the northern horizon of the Plains in 
Saskatchewan and the northwest territories, and by a line drawn from 
Norway House on the northern end of Lake W innipeg to Lake Mistassini 
in Quebec. 

For the purposes of this paper, the name Eastern Cree will be used to 
designate that portion of the Wood, Swamp, or Maskegon division lying 
east of York Factory and Norway House, from whom the notes and informa- 
tion here presented have been gathered. In addition, however, information 
from the early writers in so far as it is related to the Cree residing in the 
forested region west of the districts where our field trips were conducted, 
has been employed, and where possible, the locality has been given. Their 
neighbors are the Naskapi of Labrador on the northeast; the Eskimo on 
the eastern shores of James and Hudson's Bays; the Chipewyan on the 
northwest; the Plains Cree, Assiniboine, and Blackfoot on the southwest; 
the Saulteaux Ojibway on the south; and the Montagnais on the southeast. 
Never a warlike race, the Eastern Cree have been almost constantly at 
peace with their neighbors, perhaps with the exception of the Eskimo. 
W'ith the latter they have been on terms of enmity until well within the 
last century, when peace was brought about by the intercession of the 
Hudson's Bay Company. It is probable that occasional broils have occurred 
with practically all of their neighl)ors save the Ojibway. The Eastern Cree 



1911.] Skinner, The Eastern Cree. 9 

to this day retain a vivid recollection of Iroquois forays made among them 
during b\-gone times. 

The Eastern Cree, in common with most North American tribes, know 
themselves as Ililu or "men among men." (The epithet is here given in 
the Moosonee dialect). They also know themsehes collectively., in con- 
tradistinction to other tribes, as Muskeko-wug, or "Swamp people." They 
consider themsehes to be made np of five distinct di\isions: — 

1. Winnipego-wug, or "Coast-people", found, as their name implies, 
about the shores of James and Hudson's Bay and hunting for a very 
short distance inland. 

2. Xatclmiu-iiu, or "South-inlanders", in the inland forests south 
and east of the Bay. 

3. Klwetin-ihiwug, or "North-people", at Fort George and northward. 

4. Oscheiskakamikau-ilu, or "On-the-height-of-land-people", residing 
on the height of land from Albany to Fort George. 

5. Nekapi-ininuwug, or the "West-people",, or York Cree, residing 
in the vicinity of York Factory. 

These terms are here given in the dialect of the respective divisions. 

In addition to these recognized bands, which do not correspond with the 
dialectic divisions of these people, the bands trading at the various rendez- 
vous have often been designated by the names of these places since the 
advent of the Europeans; for example, "Rupert's House Indians." "Albany 
Indians," and "Moosonee." The latter term has caused endless confusion 
The Moosonee, ^ are a portion of that band of the Eastern Cree, known as 
the ^Yinnipego-wug. Their rendezvous is at Moose Factory, more properly 
known as Moosonee, and the fact that they speak a dialect differing slightly 
from their neighbors, combined with the confusion of terms and local names, 
has lead many writers to suppose them to have been a distinct tribe. The 
Ojibway know the Eastern Cree as ^luskeko (corrupted into Maskegon) 
or ]\Iuskeko-ninni, "Swamp-people," this term being merely the Ojibway 
form of their own name for themselves. For this reason, many writers 
have supposed the so-called Maskegon to have been a tribe distinct from, 
but related to, the Cree. This confusion probably resulted from the fact 
that early travelers often referred to the Woods, or Swamp Cree, as Maske- 
gon in order to distinguish them from the Plains band. By the Eskimo, 
the Eastern Cree are called AUat. Other terms were not obtained. 

It is probable that the original home of the Eastern Cree was south and 
east of James Bay, although their traditions hold that they have always 
occupied the region where they now dwell. Within late prehistoric times 



1 Franklin, 56, makes a similar statement. 



10 



Anthropological Papers American Museum of Natural History. [Vol. IX, 



to the present day, however, the Northern Saulteaiix division of the Ojibway 
has been steadily encroaching on their southern borders, driving the Cree 
to seek new hunting grounds to the north and east. In fact, one band of 
Saulteaux has worked so far northwest on the headwaters of the Atta- 




Fig. 1. INIap showing the Distribution of the Eastern Cree and Saulteaux. 

wapiscat Ri\er that it has nearly reached Hudson's Bay, and e.xcept along 
the coast, has almost cut off the York Cree from their Albany neighbors. 
Irociuois raids in former times no doubt drove a portion of the Eastern Cree 
northeast into Labrador from the more bountiful game fields further south. 



1911.] Skinner, The Eastern Cree. U 

On the other hand, the Hudson's Bay Company has constantly urged 
them north and west in the interests of the fur trade, so that those Cree 
in the vicinity of Lake Athabaska are said to have originally come from the 
James and Hudson's Bay regions, and some think this is true of the Plains 
bands. Be this as it may, it seems impossible for the forests of the north 
to have originally supported the present population, which is at present 
kept alive largely by food obtained from the Hudson's Bay Company. 
The Eskimo of the coast who could obtain plenty of sea mammals, and the 
Naskapi of Labrador who were in close touch with the great caribou migra- 
tions, had better economic conditions. 

In regard to the Xaskapi, a comparison of the writer's notes obtained 
from the Labrador and l'nga^•a Cree shows a remarkable agreement, in 
material culture at least, with Turner's observations.^ The Cree themselves 
claim that the Naskapi are closely related to them. It is possible that the 
Naskapi may be a band of the former, kept primitive by their isolation 
from European contact. The Eastern Cree also claim a relationship with 
the ]\Iontagnais of Labrador 

The dialect spoken as far inland as the English Uixer, 220 miles from 
Fort Albany on the southwest coast of the Bay, and extending southward 
and eastward around the Bay as far north as Fort George on the east and 
Agumiska Island on the west, is called by the traders and missionaries the 
^'James Bay Cree. " Between Agumiska and York, the Ojibway, who 
originally dwelt inland along the north shore of Lake Superior, have worked 
northward to the headwaters of the Attawapiscat. River in pursuit of furs, 
since the advent of the Hudson's Bay Company, forming a northern wedge, 
as it were, projecting into the Cree domains. Originally, the Indians at 
English River Post spoke Ojibway, but they have been in contact with 
the Albany Cree until they have given up their old language for that tongue, 
and ha^'e lost their nati^■e culture. 

The James Bay Cree are susceptible of separation into a numl)er of 
different dialects; but the local modifications which occur are slight and 
perfectly regular, so that the Cree of this entire region can hold intercourse 
with each other. The dialects distinguishable are: — 

Albany Cree: example, kina (you), ininu (man). 

Moose Cree (Moosonee) : example; kila (3'ou), ililu (man). 

Rupert's House Cree: example, tela (you), iiu (man).- 

York Cree. 

The Fort George Indians speak the same dialect as at Rupert's House. 
The difference between All)any and Moose Cree is that there is no 1 in the 
Albany dialect, n taking its place. At Rupert's House the /.' as in kila, 
you, becomes tc, and the / is omitted, as tela, you. 

1 Turner, 267. 



12 Aiilhropulogical Papers American Museum of Natural History. [\o\. IX, 



HABITATIONS. 

In former times the Eastern Cree dwelt in lodges of three general types. 
The conical lodge or wigwam, of bark, skins, or brush; the round arch- 
topped or dome-shaped lodge, also skin or bark covered; and the large 
two-fire wagwam. To-day, though all these types are still used, they are 
usually covered with canvas. The skin lodge has become obsolete. 

The Conical Lodge. In constructing the conical lodge (Mitchua) two 
saplings are first laid on the ground with their ends converging in the form 
of a ^^ They are then bound together at the intersection of their ends. 
The V is set upright, standing upon the ends of the two arms which are 
stretched far apart, and the tip of a third pole is placed in the crotch formed 
by the intersection of the first two poles, and lashed there. ^ The poles are 
now too far apart, but they are drawn closer together at the base, elevating 
the top and making the sides steeper. On this three-pole foundation, other 
poles are laid until the framework is ready to receive a covering of skins or 
bark. 

During the process of erecting a lodge it is regarded as exceedingly 
unlucky to count the poles. On the completion of the task it is, however, 
permissible to count them. The usual mmiber of poles used in erecting a 
lodge is twenty-five, thirty, or forty, according to the size. 

After the foundation poles have been raised, they are covered with rolls- 
of bark, each of which is made up of segments sewed together to form a roll 
about thi-ee feet broad, and varying in length according to the position on 
the frame, those at the bottom being the longest. Where birchbark is 
not used for this purpose, slabs of pine bark are substituted, but these are 
not sewed together. After the cover has been put o\er the framework, 
other poles are laid upon it in order to prevent it from being blown away. 
x\s birchbark is scarce in the northern part of the Cree country, pine 
bark takes its place; but the former is often brought in from the south in 
rolls of about ten pieces, each of which is composed of a number of segments 
about three feet square sewn together, sufficient in all to make a plain wig- 
wam. In building a bark wigwam, birchbark is preferred to pine bark,, 
for while the latter is warmer it becomes too brittle in cold weather. 

Formerly, many lodges were built of caribou skins. So far as could be 



1 Even the most western Cree seem to have used the same method (Henry and Thompson, 
513) and perhaps the Sioux of Wisconsui (Carver, 148). In Vol. 5, 111, of this series is a 
misquotation to the effect that a crotclied pole was used. — Ed. 



1911.] Skin72er, The Easlem Cree. 13 

learned, these were not sewed together to form a single cover as in the case 
of the Plains tipis, but were laid o\-er the poles somewhat after the fashion 
of the small pieces of canvas shown in the wigwam in Plate 1. These 
lodges were often ornamented with paintings which had the value of property 
marks. The place of honor for guests was on the side opposite the door. 

Foundations for conical lodges of brush were built in the same way. 
Boughs were then wo\en in transversely, beginning at the bottom and 
working upward. They were worked in tightly enough to prevent leaking. 
In the summer of 1908, at Eastmain River Fort, the writer saw a conical 
lodge in which split logs were set up on end surrounding the foundation 
poles. The logs were covered with can\as, and sod and moss was placerl 
o\'er all, causing an appearance not dissimilar to that of a sod house. 

In winter-wigwams seen by the w-riter at Eastmain Ri\er, aiifl at de- 
serted camping grounds along the east coast of James Bay, it was noted 
that the interior of the lodge was dug out from six inches to a foot below the 
surface of the ground. Pine boughs were heaped about the sides for the 
dwellers to recline or sit upon.. A fireplace generally occupied the center 
of the lodge and an open unco\ered space was left at the apex of the frame- 
work as an escape for the smoke. This opening was quite large in fine 
weather but could be closed during storms by laying bark or can\as o\er it. 
There were no flaps to close the smoke hole, such as are found on the lodges 
of the Plains Indians. During the heat of summer the co^-ering of skin or 
canvas is usually raised up from a foot to two or even more feet from the 
base all around, permitting the air to l)low through. Poles were lashed 
across the interior of the tent at distances from six to eight feet from the 
ground from which Aarious articles such as utensils and moccasins, were 
hung. Often fish M^ere hung on this cross piece directly o\er the fire, in 
order to be casually cured by the smoke. 

While the fireplace is almost always within, in the center of the lodge, 
it is sometimes placed outside, directly in front of, and not far fro;n, the 
door. A circle of stones is usuallv' made and earth is placed insifie of them 
to raise the hearth abo\'e the general knel of the ground. Similar stone 
fireplaces ha\e been exca\'ated on the sites of prehistoric Algonkin \'illages 
in the vicinity of Xew York City and elsewhere in the east. 

Dome-Shaped Lodge. Round, arched, or dome-shaped lodges (muto- 
tisan) while not as popular as the conical form, are still used. The frame- 
work is made of willow saplings. Taking a willow pole, one end is driven 
in the ground and the other is arched o\'er until it touches the ground where 
it is also driven in and made fast. Others are bent over this transversely 
and then all are bound together where they intersect, until there are about 
fifteen tiers. The frame is co\'ered with canvas, bark, or skins. These 



14 Anlhropulogical Papers American Museum of Natural History. [Vol. IX, 

dwellings are sometimes thirty or forty feet in circumference, and eight or 
ten feet high. The door is arch-shaped. As in the conical lodge, the place 
of honor was at the side opposite the door. Conjuring houses, while much 
smaller than the dwelling-houses, are huilt in the .same manner as the 
dome-shaped lodges. (Plate 2.) 

The Two-Fire Wigwam. The two-fire wigwam (shabuktowan) was 
rectangular in groundplan, with rounded angles. It somewhat resembled 
two wigwams joined together. There was a fire at either end, with a smoke 
hole above each. Unlike the Saulteaux, the Cree recognized no imaginary 
l)oundaries, neither were there any rules about coming and going. The 
name indeed, means, "the house that you walk right through." Such a 
lodge was usually covered with bark or skin. The place of honor was in 
the middle at one side farthest away from the door. It was called wesk- 
watem, "at the back of the lodge." 

Sweat Lodge. In making a sudatory, willows are bent over "like a 
beaver house" and bound crosswise with others, as in the building of a 
dome-shaped lodge. The framework is co\'ered with skins and no opening 
of any kind is permitted. Stones are then lieated and brought in. The 
user usually stays in the steaming bath for al)out two hours, or until the 
stones are cold. If it becomes too hot, an air hole is made to let out steam. 
Sweat l)aths are taken to cure any kind of sickness, but it is not now remem- 
bered whether this process was ever used for purification previous to any 
ceremony, religious or otherwise. No cold pliuige ever followed the sweat 
bath among the Eastern Cree, as they believed that the shock would soften 
the brain. 



CLOTHING AND TOILETTES. 

According to information gathered from various parts of the Eastern 
Cree territory, in former times, leather and fur clothing was used extensively, 
by both sexes; but the advent of the Hudson's Bay Company placed within 
reach of the Indians, first cloth, and later European garments of all sorts, 
which they have universally adopted. Moccasins, it is true, are still worn 
especially by the hunters; and rabbitskin garments and blankets are used 
in winter. It is not infrequent, however, to see small children dressed in 
clothing of the old style. 

In spite of the wide range separating the localities where some of my 
informants dwell, their information shows that the styles of clothing used 
in former times were remarkablv uniform. Under these circumstances 



1911.] Skinner, The Eastern Cree. 15 

it may not be amiss to cite Mackenzie's account of the garments Avorn by 
the Woods Cree with whom he came in contact during the years 1789-93, 
as it bears many resemblances to the data obtained by the writer, and gives 
us our earhest information in this regard. 

Mens Clothing. "Their dress is at once simple and commodious. It 
consists of tight leggins, reaching near the hip: a strip of cloth or leather, 
called assian, about a foot wide, and five feet long, whose ends were drawn 
inwards and hang behind and before, over a belt tied around the waist 
for that purpose : a close vest or shirt reaching down to the former garment, 
and cinctured with a broad strip of parchment fastened with thongs behind; 
and a cap for the head, consisting of a piece of fur, or small skin, with the 
brush of the animal as a suspended ornament : a kind of robe is thrown occa- 
sionally over the whole of the dress, and serves both night and day. These 
articles, with the ad.dition of shoes and mittens constitute the variety of 
their apparel. The materials vary according to the season, and consist 
of dressed moose-skin, beaver prepared with the fur, or Eia-opean woolens, 
the leather is neatly painted, and fancifully worked in some parts with 
porcupine quills, and moose-deer hair : the shirts and leggins are also adorned 
with fringe and tassels; nor are the shoes and mittens without somewhat 
of appropriate decoration, and worked with a considerable degree of skill 
and taste. These habiliments are put on, however, as fancy or convenience 
suggests; and they will sometimes proceed to the chase in the severest 
frost, covered only with the slightest of them. Their head-dresses are 
composed of the feathers of the swan, the eagle, and other birds. The 
teeth, horns, and claws of different animals are also the occasional ornaments 
of the head and neck. Their hair, however arranged, is always besmeared 
with grease. The making of every article of dress is a female occupation."^ 

According to my informants, before European contact, men's clothing 
in winter consisted of a thinly dressed shirt of beaver or other skin with 
the fur turned in. The skin of an adult beaver formed the body covering, 
while the sleeves, which were attached to the trunk, were made of the pelts 
of young animals. 

Leggings were made of beaver, fisher, or of the skin of the legs of the 
caribou, worn usually with the fur inside. They extended froiu the thigh 
to the ankle. Garters of leather or rabbitskin, with the fur on them, v-ere 
worn below the knee, outside the leggings. 

Hooded coats of caribou skin tanned with the hair, somewhat resembling 
Eskimo parkas, were also worn in winter. They were symbolically painted 
inside by outlining on the skin, the e^^es and mouth, of the animal, signi- 
fying that the garment possessed the powers of speed, endurance, or cunning 



1 Mackenzie, 65. 



16 Anthropological Papers American Museum of Natural History. [Vol. IX, 



\ 





1911.] Skinner, The Eastern Cree. 17 

of the living animal, and was able to convey them to the wearer. So far 
as could be learned, this symbolism is confined ,to the garments of men, 
and the designs occur on the hood or head coverings only. Fig. 2 shows a 
parka of this type, of boy's size, which was obtained by the writer at Rupert's 
House. It is made of caribou fawn skin. 

Coats with attached hoods made of woven rabbitskins were also used. 
These, like the parkas, were put on over the head, in contradistinction to 
the similar coats of rabbitskin worn by the women which were put on coat- 
wise and laced up in front. The tufts of hair representing the ral)bit's 
ears are attached to the outside. These show the wearer to be as imper- 
vious to cold as the rabbit. (Fig. .3.) Rabbitskin moccasins are generally 

worn only in winter in traveling 
over smooth ice when they pre- 
vent the feet from slipping. 
%> Among the natives at Fort 

^%^--v Albany, a curious interchange 

" ■; ~v- of cultiu'c has been observed. 
m^^ The typical rabbitskin garments 
^ ^ ^ of the Eastern Cree are the coat, 

f t S >.|: hood, and blanket. The North- 

N \^j4 ern Saulteaux, migrating into the 

' <lyv^^^. territory of the Eastern Cree, 

pi'^^j •^>»ii|*'il# finding warmer clothing than 

their own tanned buckskin gar- 
Fig. .3 (.50-7463). Coat of Woven Rabbit- 
skins. Length. 4S cm. ments neccssary, borrowed the 

art of rabbitskin weaving from 
them. In addition, the.y invented leggings, clouts, moccasins, and mittens 
of the same material which the Cree of Albany and Moose Forts in their 
turn readopted from the Saulteaux. While the Cree admit the antiquity 
of their fur clothing they firmly claim that many of the rabbitskin gar- 
ments now used by them were acquired in this manner. 

In summer, the man's costume consisted of a short-sleeved coat made 
of tanned skin with the hair removed, and trousers coming only to the knee. 
Another type of leather coat (Fig. 4) was made of thinly dressed caribou 
skin tanned without the hair, with sleeves coming to the wrists. Designs 
were painted upon the sleeves and on the borders of these coats and feathers 
were sometimes sewn along the sleeves in the front and back, while duck's 
bills and caribou phalanges were fastened upon the collars and shoulders. 
During the summer, trousers took the place of leggings, while in very warm 
weather, even these were discarded in favor of the breechclout. Especially 
ornate garments were worn in time of war and these were always kept 
outside of the wigwam in a secret place. 




18 



Anthropological Papers American Museum of Natural History. [Vol. IX, 



Women's Garments. According to Mackenzie : — " The female dress 
is formed of the same materials as those of the other sex, but of a different 
make and arrangement Their shoes are commonly plain, and their leggins 
gartered beneath the knee. The coat, or body covering, falls down to the 
middle of the leg, and is fastened over the shoulders with cords, a flap or 




Fig. 4 (10-3). Decorated Coat. Length, 99 cm. 



cape turned down about eight inches, both before and behind,, and agreeably 
ornamented with quill-work and fringe; the bottom is also fringed, and 
fancifully painted as high as the knee. As it is very loosC; it is enclosed 
round the waist with a stiff belt, decorated with tassels, and fastened behind. 
The arms are covered to the wrist, with detached sleeves, which are sewed 



1911. 



Skinner, The Eastern Cree. 



19 



as far as the bend of the arm; from thence they are drawn up to the neck, 
and the corners of them fall down behind, as low as the waist. The cap, 
when they wear one, consists of a certain quantity of leather or cloth, sewed 
at one end, by which means it is kept on the head, and, hanging down the 
back, is fastened to the belt, as well as under the chin. The upper garment 
is a robe like that worn by the men."^ 

The writer was informed that the clothing of the women consisted of a 
robe of dressed skin worn like a sheet, with a hole for the head and a hole 
on the right side for the passage of the arm. The left side was tied or laced 
together at intervals. The robe was made of caribou, bear, or beaverskin, 
tanned without the hair, and reaching to the ankles. Separate sleeves were 
tied on over the shoulders like mittens, and leggings from the knees down 
completed the costume. 

Women were always fully dressed, even in summer. In winter, hooded 




Fig. 5 (50-7056). Design on a Woman's Legging. 



coats of woven rabbitskin were used, differing from those used by the men 
in that they were laced up in front, being put on like a coat, instead of over 
the head like a shirt. 

After the appearance of white traders, cloth soon took the place of the 
ancient skin garments. The cloth garments were first cut in the aboriginal 
style, but were soon made in imitation of those worn by the Europeans. 
A few leggings of beaded cloth may still be found among the old women. 
These are much shorter than those worn by the men and are tied on below 
the knee. Fig. 5 shows the decorations on a pair of woman's leggings ob- 
tained at Eastmain River. An old beaded cloth hood, rectangular in shape 
and closed on two sides was shown to the writer by a Hudson's Bay trader, 
who had obtained it man3^ years ago at Fort George. 



^ Mackenzie, 66. 



20 



Anlhropological Papers American Museum of Natural History. [Vol. IX, 



Articles Common to both Sexes. Cloaks of skin, fastened at the throat 
with a bone pin were used by both sexes, as were separate caribou skin 
hoods, the latter usually being made of the skin of the head of the caribou 
with the ears left on and adorned with symbolic painting inside. Fig. 2 
shows one intended for a small boy obtained at Eastmain River Fort. 

Moccasins were of three styles. None of these were ever ornamented 
in the old days, for the Cree, like their southern neighbors, the Northern 
Saulteaux, claim that the embroidered moccasins now used are not of the 
old style. The types of footgear were : — 

(1) The ordinary northern type (Fig. 6c) has a seam running from 
beneath the toes to the oval vamp over the instep, a short vertical seam 
bisecting a short horizontal seam containing a welt at the heel. A seal- 






Fig. 6(7 (.50-7004), b (50-7003), c (50-6972). Moccasin Types. 



loped ankle band and welt separate the sole and upper, which are all in one 
piece, from the extension upper, which runs midway up the shin and opens 
in front. Ankle-threaded tying laces occur, which are run about the 
extension upper to close and secure it. Nowadays, the vamp is usually 
double, the upper piece being of white caribou skin embroidered with floral 
designs in silk. Beadwork is apparently placed on a single vamp, but is not 
nearly so common as the silk embroidery. Both high and low forms occur 
in this and other types. 

(2) The "deer's tooth" style (Fig. 6b), is identical with the former, 
save that the toe seam ends in a short transverse seam over the toe where 
the sides are puckered to it in a manner suggesting the name. In the 
specimens collected for the Museum there is a welt between the vamp and 



1911.] Skinner, The Eastern Cree. 21 

the sides. This form of moccasin is usually made when the skin is too thick 
to permit the manufacture of the first type, but it is rare. Those the writer 
saw in use were worn by the inland hunters from near Labrador. 

(3) The third type is known to the Indians as the "rabbit's nose" 
type (Fig. 6a) because of the peculiar pucker in which the toe seam ends on 
the upper side. The seams are all turned outward and ridged. The heel 
seams are of the same character as in the ordinary style. This type is 
rarely if ever used now by any of the Cree, except those- from Nitchequon 
and Lake ]Mistassini. Many of the hunters from this region who come 
out to Rupert's House wear them. They are said to have once been com- 
mon to all the bands. 

Mittens. Two types of mittens are made. The first is composed of 
three pieces, a thumb in one piece and hand and sleeve in two. The second 
type is made with a separate sleeve in one piece which is attached to the 
hand. Mittens are always carried suspended from the neck by means of a 
thong and are drawn up the sleeve when not in use. 

Combs. Combs were made of birch wood, and were of the same type as 
those seen by Turner among the Naskapi of Labrador. They were carried 
about in a birchbark case. A piece of porcupine tail, which is covered with 
stiff bristles, was used to clean the teeth of the comb. It was usually 
fastened by a thong to the comb or comb box. 

Facial Painting. Facial painting was much in vogue up to a compara- 
tively recent time, old and even middle-aged men well remembering when 
it was done. This form of ornamentation was used for Avar, hunting, 
and ceremonies. According to Mackenzie, "A material article in their 
toilettes is vermilion, which the}' contrast with their native blue, white, 
and brown earths, to which charcoal is frequently added." ^ " The women,^ 
though by no means inattentive to the decoration of their own persons, 
appear to have a still greater degree of pride in attending to the appearance 
of the men, whose faces are painted with more care then those of the women." 

The designs employed were often merely geometrical, consisting of lines 
and dots as shown in Fig. 35 ; but on the other hand, attempts were made to 
portray realistically the mammals, birds, or fish, upon which the wearer 
subsisted. Sometimes these were combined with the geometric designs. 
This was done largely to placate the spirits of these animals that there 
might be no diminution of their supply in the future. In most cases, the 
entire animal was portrayed in profile, but occasionally the head of the 
caribou was drawn either in profile or full face. The bear's foot was also 
used as a sign of strength. A series of such designs (Fig. 7) as well as 

1 Mackenzie, 65. 

2 Mackenzie, 66 el. seq. 



22 Anthropological Papers American Museum of Natural History. [V^ol. IX, 






Fig. 7. Types of Face Decoration: a Scars as the signs of bravery and valor in battle; 
6 Representing different kinds of fish as a prayer for a future supply; c The bear and the bear 
foot as a symbol of power; d The loon^fox, and beaver, a prayer for success in hunting. 



1911.] SJdnner, The Eastern Cree. 23 

some of the more geometrical forms, for which the meaning now seems to 
be lost, was collected at Rupert's House. 

In summer, when elbow sleeves and trousei's reaching only to the knee 
were worn by the men, the arms and legs, where uncovered, were smeared 
with paint, usually white for the arms, and red for the legs. The red paint 
for these purposes was made of ochre mixed with isinglass and could not 
be washed oif. \Alien once put on it had to remain until it wore away. 

Taitoo'uuj. This was a frequent mode of decoration in the old days, 
but has long become obsolete. The only design now remembered is a 
simple band about the wrists, but it is probable that many other designs 
were employed. Mackenzie observes that: "Some of the women tattooed 
three perpendicular lines, which were sometimes double: one from the 
centre of the chin to that of the under lip, and one parallel on either side 
to the corner of the mouth." ^ Franklin says of the Cree of Cumberland 
House, somewhat to the west, " some of the men have their bodies covered 
with a great variety of lines and figures. . . .The lines on the face are formed 
by dexterously running an awl under the cuticle, and then drawing a cord, 
dipt in charcoal and water, through the canal thus formed. The punctures 
on the body are formed by needles of various sizes set in a frame. A number 
of hawk bells attached to this frame serve by their noise to cover the sup- 
pressed groans of the sufferer, and, probably for the same reason, the process 
is accompanied with singing An indelible stain is produced by rubbing a 
little finely powdered willow-charcoal into the punctures A half-breed, 
whose arm I amputated, declared, that tattooing was not only the most 
painful operation of the two, but rendered infinitely more difficult to bear 
by its tediousness, having lasted in his case three days." ^ 

Facial Scarification. This practice is now long obsolete, but was used 
as a sign of personal valor. The scars were raised welts of a lighter color 
than the natural skin. The only design now remembered, if others there 
were, consisted of six straight scars: a vertical mark in the middle of the 
forehead on a line with the nose and between the eyes, a second vertical 
scar from the lower lip to the point of the chin on a line with the fii'st scar, 
and two parallel horizontal scars on each upper cheek below the eye. 

Method of Wearing the Hair. Mackenzie says, " Their complexion is of 
copper colour, and their hair black, which is common to all the natives of 
North America. It is cut in various forms, according to the fancy of the 
several tribes, and by some is left in the long, lank, flow of nature. They 
very generally extract their beards, and both sexes manifest a disposition 
to pluck the hair from every part of the body and limbs." ^ According to 



1 Mackenzie 66. Also Maximilian's Atlas, Tab. 33. 

2 Franklin. 64. 

3 Mackenzie, 65. 



24 Anthropological Papers American Museum of Natural History. [Vol. IX, 

Mackenzie, "Their hair is divided on the crown, and tied behind, or some- 
times fastened in hvrge knots over the ears." ^ 

Our informant said that the men sometimes wore their hair in a single 
plait down the back. Another method was that seen among some of the 
older men wdio clipped it at the shoulders. Women, however, always wear 
their hair in tw^o plaits, to the base of which the skins of ducks' and other 
birds' necks were sometimes tied. The women sometimes wear their hair 
in two tight braids wound flatly around the back of the head. At the 
present day, it is most unusual to see a Cree woman without a handkerchief 
or shawl over her head. Women eradicate the pubic hairs; but nowadays 
beards are encouraged by the men as it heightens their resemblance to 
Europeans. 

Earrings. In former times, the ears of both sexes were pierced for the 
insertion of bone rings, but the antiquity of this custom is not known. 
Some doubt that it is of great age. 



FOODS AND THEIR PREPARATION. 

Owing to climatic conditions, agriculture was and is practically impossi- 
ble to the Eastern Cree. Berries and fruits are not at all abundant in their 
range, so that it may be said that they have practically no vegetable food. 
They rely primarily upon hunting, and secondarily upon fishing, for their 
subsistence. 

In former times, bows were made quite short, as long onee could not be 
used to advantage in the forest. They were sinew-backed. Special bows 
wei'e used for warfare. The bowstring was made of twisted bark. The 
]Moose Factory Cree claim to have made flint arrow-heads by percussion, 
but at the more easterly Posts it was said that rubbed slate points were 
used. Points of antler or bone, cut b}' grooving with a sharp stone were 
more widely distributed. At present the boys at all the Posts use blunt 
arrows for killing small game, especially birds, but these weapons 
are no longer used by the men. These blunt arrows have flat-sided nocks 
like those of the Eskimo. Some have a swollen head with flat point and 
circular cross-sections while in others the cross-section is polygonal and there 
is a little point or hump in front. Arrows were formerly finished with two 
or three feathers, but they were never feathered with a twist. 

1 Mackenzie, 66. 



1911.] Skinner, The Eastern Cree. 25 

Hunting. During the winter the rabbit, or hare, is the staff of hfe. 
Easy to snare, and occurring in great abundance throughout the northern 
forests, they furnish both food and clothing. They also supply food for 
most of the fur-bearing animals. Every seventh year, it is said, that the 
rabbits are seized with a disease, some form of tuberculosis, according to 
the Hudson's Bay Company doctor and Assistant Commissioner, Dr. 
Millan, which sweeps them away in great numbers. During the periods 
when rabbits are scarce, the Indians experience great suffering. Not only 
do they themselves starve, but the fur-bearing carnivora upon which they 
depend for the means of barter in the spring, and which, if not always very 
palatable, would at least sustain life, are also depleted in numbers through 
the general lack of food. During these bad years, for it takes two or more 
years for the rabbits to recuperate, the Indians are not infrequently driven 
to cannibalism. There are individuals at nearly every post who have tasted 
human flesh under these conditions. 

The usual way of snaring rabbits is to set a noose made of wikopi, or 
willow bark, in their runways. This is fastened to a tossing pole, or sapling, 
which jerks the unfortunate rabbit up out of the reach of prowling cai-- 
nivora. The flesh of the rabbit is usually boiled in a kettle and eaten. 
The paws are never thrown away, but cut off at the elbow, the hair is 
removed and they are dried and pounded on a stone until powdered. In 
this state they are carried about in winter for food. 

Beaver are frequently eaten. They are caught by "chiseling". The 
creek where the beaver dwell is shut up above and below the houses by 
rows of stakes driven through the ice to the bottom of the stream. Then 
the houses are broken in from above. Some beaver are caught within, 
others escape to the creek, and' finding the stakes, pass along them until 
they reach an opening about a fathom wide, covered with a net-like bag of 
bark. They run into this, and as soon as the Indian on guard on the ice 
feels one struggling he draws the bag tight and the beaver is caught. Some- 
times beaver holes in the bank are found and blocked up and the beaver 
is dug out. Beaver bones are always thrown back into the water in order 
that the dogs may not get them, for this would so offend the spirit of the 
beaver that it would warn those still alive not to be caught. 

Caribou are taken in winter with the bow and arrow, but sometimes 
with a spear. They were shot with arrows and trailed down when wounded. 
Formerly, when hunting caribou on the ice, it was customary to set up a row 
of poles with rags tied to them. The poles were arranged to form the two 
sides of a triangle, the hunter hiding at the apex. The deer approaching 
the open base are frightened by the poles and run along between the lines 
until they come to the apex where the hunter is able to fire at them at close 



20 



Anthropohniicol Papers Atnoican Museum of Natural Ilislory. [Vol. IX, 



range. Thoy More often arranged in liourglass fashion, that deer coming- 
in either iHreetion might be caught. This method of hmiting is only used 
on ice and is most conunonly followed at Fort George and Whale River.^ 
In limiting caribou in the forest, a favorite method is as follows:— 
It is well kiHn\n that when started caribou will run through a valley from 
end to i>nd, and not up the sides. When they are discovered feeding in a 
valley, a hunter will go to one end and lie in wait while another, or even an 
unarmed boy or girl, will go to the other end, and returning, howl in imita- 
tion of a wolf. Alarmed at this, the caribou rush desperately towards the 
hunter lying in wait for them. 

The luinter sometimes announces the death of a caribou by cutting off 
and bringing home a tuft of hair, or the right foreleg, severed at the knee. 
This is given to the person who it is desired shall butcher the carcass. No 
further ceremony accompanies the act, nor is the leg necessarily preserved. 
All forms of "driving" are usually done over bare hills where there is 
little or no forest or underbrush. Slip noose snares, sometimes with heavy 
tossing poles, were set along trails in the snow. 
The animals were driven down the paths and 
were caught and choked to death in the snares. 

Caribou meat is eaten either fresh or smoked. 
The blood is mbced with the undigested wliite 
moss found in its stomach, and sometimes " rock- 
weed" (a Hchen) is added to thicken it. It is 
boiled and eaten \\-ith a shallow, round-bowled 
wooden ladle (Fig. 8). The legs of the caribou 
are singed free of hair, cooked, and eaten. ^Mien 
hunting, the leg bones of the caribou are pounded 
to a powder, put in a little sack and carried to cat 
on the journey. Tliis bone powder is also boiled as 
a substitute for tea. ^^^len in the forest, a small 
bag-hke part of the caribou's stomach, called the 
owao, is used as a kettle for cooking food. It is 
carried while joume\-ing, and usually lasts about 
a week. So far as the writer could learn, moose, 
which are found in the southern range of the 
Eastern Cree, is pursued, taken, and used in the 
same manner as the caribou. 

The bear is an important article of diet. In the old days, the hunters 
engaged the bear in hand to hand conflicts and clubbed it to death, for 
the bow and arrows were not considered strong enough weapons. Bears 

I See VoL V. 51. 




Fig. S .50-6977). Wood 
en Spoon. Length. 32 cm. 



1911.] Skinner, The Ea^ern Cnx. 27 

were frequently killed in their winter dens in tliis manner. At present, 
bears caught in steel traps are sometimes killeti l\\' striking them over the 
head with an ax, although they are usually shot. Dogs were and are used 
in their capture. In the summer time, the bear is generally trapped, either 
in modern steel traps, by means of a deadfall, or a stranghng noose. The 
subject of bear hunting, and the elaborate attendant ceremonies which have 
grown up concerning it are described elsewhere i,p. 69\ 

Lynx are also eaten. Owing perhaps to their nocturnal habits these 
animals are hard to catch. They are trapped both in summer and winter; 
but in winter they are usually nm down with snowshoes and killed with an 
ax. If the lynx nms up a tree, a noose is ptit on a pole and thrown over its 
neck, and it is hauled down and choked to death. 

Seals are eaten by the Winnipego-wiig who shoot, harpoon, or club them 
to death when they come ashore. The Coast Cree also take whales by means 
of harpoons. They claim that the taking of both seals and whales with 
harpoons is of Eskimo origin and that within comparatively recent times 
was introduced through European influence. Sealskin is tanned and used 
for some purposes. 

Ducks and geese were taken with the bow and arrows or with snares, 
but they are now killed with gims. Every fall and winter the Hudson's 
Bay Company buys from the Indians great quantities of gray, snow, and 
blue geese which are salted down in barrels for future use. 

On the coast, loons, while too strong in flavor for use most of the year, 
are often eaten in the spring. In the interior, their flesh is milder and is 
eaten all the year roimd. The entrails of dticks and geese roasted in the 
ashes are considered a great delicacy, especially in the fall, when the birds 
arc Nery fat. 

Partritlges and ptarmigan are taken in snares. Ix>ng parallel hedges 
of sticks are built with holes for the birds to enter. Nooses are set in these 
and the birds driven in and caught. Large nets are spread and gravel put 
in them. The partridges come to get this, and the net is pulled over them. 

Fi,^'hing. Jack-fish (^pike) and sttu-geon are usually speared. The spear 
used in the old days consisted of a wooden foreshaft to which were fastened 
two barbed harpoon-like blades of bone at angles to each other, fastened to 
a long handle. The blades were driven into the fish and the backward 
pointing barb prevented its escape. Such spears are still used, Init the bone 
blades have been stipplanted by iron. Gill nets were originally made of 
willow root bark, but now of twine. However, the Indians at present gen- 
erally prefer to buy their nets ready-made from the Hudson's Bay Company. 
They are set along the banks of rivers, especially at the mouths of streams. 
Two specimens secured at Moose Factory are in the collection. The sink- 



28 



Anthropological Papers American Museum of Natural History. ["\'ol. IX, 




ers are plain unnotched stones, bound around by bands of willow bark. For 
floats, peeled sticks about two inches in circumference and two feet long are 
used. In winter, the net floats are made like an apple seed in shape as 
floats of this shape are said not to freeze in the ice (Fig. 9) . 

Fishing through the ice was originally carried on with a fish hook made 

of a bone barb bound to an 
oblong-shaped piece of wood. 
The bait was tied to this and 
lowered through a hole in the 
ice. AMien angling for fish 
that live near the bottom the 
line is sunk by a stone sinker. 
Vrhen the bottom is reached 
the line is hauled up again, 
the proper distance gauged, 
the sinker removed, and the 
line again lowered. The end 
of the line is then tied to a 
wooden hook, or running 
stick, which is again placed 
over a stick set up obliquely 
in the snow or ice; the line 
being let out to the proper distance, the slack is wound up and secured by 
a slip knot. When a fish takes the bait, the slack line unwinds and the 
hook or running stick slides down the oblique rod to the groimd, warning 
the fisherman that he has a bite. 

Meats. Meat is usually roasted on a spit, or "poneask". The rump 
of the caribou or bear, and the shoulder of the beaver are generally so 
treated. Sometimes flesh was roasted on a grill of green poles or sticks 
built over the fire. Fish are dried, smoked, and also occasionally cooked 
in this way. Pemmican is made of meat dried on a grill over a fire till crisp, 
and pounded to a powder, with the addition of caribou grease. Fish is 
also treated in the same manner. An uncommon method of cooking meat 
is to wrap it up so that no du't can reach it, and then place it in a hole in 
the sand which has previously been heated by a fire. Hot sand is then 
heaped over it and another fire built on top. 

Meat to be "poneasked", or roasted, is cut as thin as possible and a 
spit run through it from end to end, lengthwise. It is then spread out by 
means of wooden skewers, or spreaders, which cause it to receive the heat 
evenly. The spit is set obliquely, very close to the fire. Deer, moose, 
and caribou hearts are often suspended from a tripod by a string, the meat 



Fig. 9 (50-7042, 7043). Net Floats for winter 
Use. Length, 13 cm. 



1911. J Skinner, the Eastern Cree. 29 

secured to the string by means of a skewer. This is swung close to the fire 
and is kept rcAohing in order to obtain a \uiiform degree of heat. 

Meat of all kinds is smoked and dried for future consumption. While 
meat is often roasted, it is frequently boiled. In boiling fish, it is considered 
that the flavor is better preserxed if they are thrown into the kettle, scales, 
entrails and all. After they have been cooked for a time, the scales are 
easily rubbed oft" and the entrails removed. As has been stated, the water 
in which fish is boiled is considered a very healthy beverage. 

The nose, heart, and tongue of all species of the deer family are con- 
sidered great delicacies. ]Marrow is obtained by splitting the bones, and 
is eaten either roasted, raw, or boiled. The joints of animal bones are 
pounded up as finely as possible by laying them on a flat stone and striking 
with a stone pestle or the back of an ax. They are then boiled to obtain 
the grease. This is run into moulds and kept there until it cools and hardens. 
In this form it is kept in birchbark boxes. Meat is often mixed with it. 

On August LS, 1909, the writer was so fortunate as to witness the manner 
of smoking moose meat for preservation. As a matter of fact, the curing 
of the meat was accomplished by drying up the juice of the flesh by the 
heat from the fire. The name smoked meat is a misnomer, "fire-cured 
meat" is more correct. The moose was butchered by two Cree, and the 
following day the flesh was cut up and dried on a scaffold built over the fire. 
The scaffold was formed of four upright sticks of green wood which were 
driven into the ground in the shape of a rectangle at a height of about three 
feet. Longitudinal bars were lashed on the long sides. These cross pieces 
used in the grill were from a foot to eighteen inches in length, flattened on 
the sides in order to hold the meat firmly. The bars were first laid two 
flat ends and then two round ends, alternately. Then a grill, also made of 
green wood, was laid crosswise over them. The meat was carefully re- 
moved from the bones and cut into thin strips, which were hung over the 
cross bars of the grill. A rather large fire was built under it and the heat 
and smoke served to cure the meat enough to make it last for several days. 
This process took about two or three hours. One man was constantly 
employed going about the grill, keeping the raw meat turned towards the 
fire. This method of drying meat is the quickest, but meat so dried is not 
cured as thoroughly as when it is smoked on a frame built of three poles 
fastened together at the top with cross bars on which the meat is hung. It 
is smoked for several days and will last a long time. The method here 
described is generally employed when tra\eling. When meat has been hastily 
dried in this manner by a traveling party, the Indians often stop canoeing 
more than usually early in the day in order to erect a hasty scaffold and 
repeat the process during the evening and ensuing night. Smoked meat 



30 Anthropological Papers American Museum of Natural History. [\^ol. IX, 

may be eaten as it is, or it may be boiled, or perhaps fried, according to taste. 
When fish are to be preserved for future use they are placed on a grill of 
green wood over a fire and smoked. 

Vegetable Foods. ^>getable foods were almost unloiown. Berries, 
especially blueberries were eaten. They were boiled until they formed a 
paste, and then cut into loaves. As most of the Eastern Cree territory 
is be^'ond the northernmost range of the sugar maple, they have no maple 
sugar or syrup; but "birch water molasses" is made. Roots are often 
eaten. The tops and the stems of wild onions are cut up and boiled, but 
the roots are not eaten. A plant said to resemble rhubarb is also used. 

Cooking and Utensils. In cooking while traveling, part of the stomach 
of the caribou or moose is often used as a kettle. It is hung from a bar 
upheld by cross pieces or from the end of a stick driven obliquely in the 
ground, directly over the fire over the flame and will last for use about a 
week. Wooden pans and bowls were used to boil food. In this case, hot 
stones were dropped in the water to heat it; such bowls are now obsolete. 
Vessels or baskets of birchbark are used for boiling water. They are 
placed directly over the fire, and do not last as long as the stomach kettle.^ 

Pottery is unknown to the Eastern Cree who used vessels of steatite or 
soapstone. The form of these has been forgotten. These had the ad- 
vantage of being able to stand the heat if placed directly on the fire. Such 
vessels were necessarily clumsy and heavy, and were not carried when 
traveling. The skull caps of animals were also used as culinary utensils. 

The parfleche of the Plains is imloiown, but meat is sometimes carried 
in a bark roll. This is made of three pieces of bark sewed together with 
root thread. Sticks are fastened at each end to prevent the bark from 
splitting. The roll is spread out on the ground and the feasters sit about 
it as around a table. The meat is laid upon it, cut up, and distributed. 
The roll may be six, eight, or ten feet long. This primitive table cloth is 
kept rolled up when not in use. 

Several types of spoons used in eating and preparing food were obtained. 
The first of these possesses a shallow, rounded bowl and is used for eating 
caribou blood mixed with moss. The second, has a longer oval pointed 
shallow bowl and is used for ladling out boiled fish. A third type is called 
the "bear's foot" spoon, from its shape (Fig. 10b). Whether it has a special 
use could not be learned. The handles of some large spoons or ladles from 
Fort Albany are ornamented with deep scallops at the base of the bowl. 

Several crude spoons were made at the writer's request by Indians at 
INIoose Factory. As wooden spoons are apparently no longer used there 



See Vol. V, 45. 



1911. 



Skinner, The Eastern Cree. 



31 



it may be that these were reconstructed from memory. They certainly 
are very crudely and poorly constructed and are of a different shape from 
those obtained at other Posts. They are dyed yellow with willow root dye. 
Children's toy spoons occur and are made in imitation of the larger types. 





b 
Fig. 10a (50-6976), b (50-6975). Spoons for eating Fish. Length of, a. 35 cm. 



A flat, square-bladed bread turner and stirrer, with a handle o\er a foot 

long was observed in use among some women with the Mistassini voj^ageurs 

at Rupert's House. 

A child's small wooden cup (Fig. 11) with a perforated handle was also 

collected from these voyageurs. Dr. F. G. Speck informs the writer that 

similar cups in use among the Mon- 
tagnais, Abnaki, and Passamac^uoddy 
(the former sometimes come to Lake 
Mistassini) are worn suspended from 
the belt by means of a thong and 
wooden button. The model of a 
wooden tray here figured was ob- 
tained at Rupert's House (Fig. 12). 
Wooden bowls and trays, while in 
common use in the forests, are very 

difficult to obtain since they are always cached at the camping grounds and 

rarely brought to the Posts. 

When leaving a camping place to which it is expected the party will 

return, it is customary to cache, or store, a certain amount of food, and 




Fig. 11 (50-6981). Small Wooden Cup. 
Depth, 5 cm. 



32 



Anthropological Papers Amencan Museum of Natural History. [Vol. IX, 



utensils which it is not desirable to take along. These are usually placed 
on scaffolds high in the air to be out of the way of lost dogs, wolves, and 




Fig. 12 (50-69S2). INIodc'l of a Tray. 

especially wolverenes. Xo person destroys or steals a cache, and unless 
driven b^' starvation will never tamper with one. A cache was seen at 
Black Bear's Point on the northern end of James Bay, slightly west of the 
mouth of the Nottoway River. 

In former times the only two meals were in the morning and at night; 
but it is probal)le that food was frequently eaten between times. 

In winter, drinking water is sometimes obtained by placing a snowball 
in a stone having a panlike hollow, fastened in the end of a split stick, and 
melting tlu> snow o^•er the fire. . 








Fig. 13 (50-6987). Firedrill and Carrying Bag. 



1911.] Skinner, The Eastern Cree. 33 

Fire Making. A four-piece bow firedrill, somewhat resembling the 
Eskimo perforator, was used in the old days. The model (Fig. 13) obtained, 
is incorrect as the hand-cap for holding the top of the shaft should be per- 
forated at one side to hold tinder, for fire was sometimes generated here 
before it was obtained on the hearth. A bag of caribou leg-skin was used 
to c-Avry the firedrill (Fig. 13). Before they had the bow firedrill, the Eastern 
Cree claim that they used to strike two pieces of "white flint" (quartz) 
over touchwood. Touchwood is the punk or dry under-bark of a dead tree. 
It was always kept dry for use as tinder while traveling. A birchbark box 
was sometimes used for this purpose. When a spark was obtained it was 
placed in the touchwood between two pieces of charcoal, and blown upon 
until the charcoal became ignited. Then shredded birchbark was added. 
Fire was also carried about for days smouldering in birch punk. For fire- 
wood, dry sticks and limbs were broken, not chopped off, and dragged to 
the wigwam. The sticks were placed in the hearth so that they radiated 
like the spokes of a wheel and as they were consumed the unbin'nt parts 
were shoved into the fire to feed it. 



TANNING. 

The manufacture of leather, as practised by the Cree differed in some 
essentials from the methods employed by the Plains and Gulf tribes, but 
resembled the process used by the Woodland peoples in general. The task 
was divided into six parts: flaying, fleshing, scraping, braining, working, 
and smoking. As soon as the animal is killed, the hunter proceeds to flay 
it. The skin is cut down the belly and 
the inside of the legs, and is remoN^ed 
with the assistance of a wedge-shaped 
bone skinning tool.^ In winter, the 
skin is allowed to freeze and is kept in 
this condition awaiting the leisure of 
the tanner, but in warmer weather it 
is Avell to flesh it at once. For this 
purpose the skin is pegged out on the 
ground and scraped with a semilunar 

1 -J- /T^' 1 <\ 1 • 1 • 11 ^1 Fig- 14 (50-7047). Semilunar Knife 

knife (Fig. 14) which is used by the for scraping Sldns. Length. 9 cm. 

Eastern bands, but a chisel-shaped 

scraper with or without teeth often takes its place to the westward. When 




'' For illustration see Fig. 42. 



34 



Anthropological Papers American Museum of Natural History. [Vol. IX, 



the superfluous tissue and skin has been removed, the scraping process 
begins. The skin is thrown over the smoothed upper end of a log driven 
obhquely in the ground, and a beaming tool (P^ig. 15) made of the shin bone 
of a deer, is grasped firmly in the tanner's hands and pushed over the skin 
against the grain of the hair, until the fur has been shaved away. After 
this, the skin is washed and hang out to dry. 

Once dry again, a mixture of animal grease and brains is worked thor- 
oughly into the skin, which is warmed from time to time. When this process 
is concluded, it is again himg out to dry. When the skin is dry once more, 
it is taken down and soaked and the brains and grease washed out. The 





Fig. 1.5a (.50-0995), h (50-7457). Flesher and Beaming Tool: 



wet skin in now worked and stretched with the hands while it dries, until 
it becomes pliable. The skin is now beautifully white and soft, and is ready 
for use as it is, but in this condition it is likely to become mouldy, and is 
not very durable. In order to obviate this difficulty, it is sewed up in a 
bag-like form, and suspended from a tripod, by the closed bottom of the bag. 
A pot of smouldering punk is swung underneath, until the skin is saturated 
with the fumes. The tanning is now completed unless it is desired to make 
the leather waterproof, when it is soaked in the liquor of boiling willow bark 
which serves fairly well. Nowadays, skins are seldom tanned with the 
fur, but the method is similar except that the scraping process is omitted. 



1911.] Skinner, The Eastern Cree. 35 



WEAVING. 

Garments of rabbitskin were universally worn both in summer and 
winter, and the custom still survives although to a lesser extent. The 
process of their manufacture is as follows : — The fresh skin of a ral^bit is 
removed by making a single cut at the breast and the body is drawn through 
the opening. Then the skin is turned inside out, and placed over a stick 
which is put up in the middle of the wigwam. Xext the skin is cut into 
string. Taking the skin in the left hand, the Indian holds his knife against 
it near the tail and revolves the skin around the stick, the strand unwinding 
itself as it is cut. When a sufficient amount of string has been made, it 
is twisted. One end of the string is tied about the middle of a stick about 
six inches long while the other is held down with the foot to prevent its 
turning. Holding the string near the stick in one hand, it is twisted by 
revohing the wood with the forefinger of the other hand. 

Another method of twisting rabbitskin string is to split a stick about six 
inches long at one end and to insert one end of the string in the split. The 
other end of the string is held firmly with the foot, the stick is placed against 
the right thigh and rolled rapidly by the right hand with an up and down 
movement. The cord Avhich is now ready for use is wound into a ball until 
needed. 

For weaving blankets, a frame consisting of four sticks is lashed together 
in the form of a rectangle the size of which varies in accordance with the 
desire of the worker. To begin the blanket, a bark cord is wound about 
the frame, or loom, in order to bind it loosely to a strip of the rabbitskin 
string along the inner edge to form the outer margin of the garment. Then 
a piece of the rabbitskin string carried along by a bone needle is taken and 
looped at intervals over the margin cord. 

While the Eastern Cree use frames to make the blanket, the Northern 
Saulteaux often do not take the trouble to do this, but wea\-e the blanket 
on a single stick, and on rarer occasions, use no frame at all but merely a 
piece of string. However, blankets made in this manner are quite inferior 
to those made with a loom. In working, the needle is shoved down from 
the top over the margin cord. 

]\Iiss ]VI. L. Kissell of this Museum has kindly identified the weave as 
the "coil without foundation" variety, which is in common use among 
A'arious Athapascan peoples. 

To make a coat, that part of the garment which covers the trunk is 



36 Anthropological Papers American Museum of Nalural History. [Vol. IX, 

worked up on the loom in exactly the same way as a blanket, but holes are 
left for the sleeves. In case of the sleeves, a stick is set up in the ground 
and a piece of cloth or skin is wrapped about it until it has reached the 
proper size. A string is then tied around the top and the weaving is started 
downward in the same manner as a blanket is woven, until the desired 
length is attained. 

Leggings are made in the same manner as the sleeves; moccasins are 
manufactured over a buckskin moccasin stuffed out in the shape of the foot. 
Breechclouts are usually made with the fingers without a loom. 

For hoods, the measurement of the head is taken with a string of rabbit- 
skin and this is tied together in a circle. The hood is then woven with the 
fingers on this string base, no needle being used. 



GAMES AND AMUSEMENTS. 

Oddly enough, no record of any gambling games was gathered among the 
Eastern Cree, although they have a number of pastimes which are used for 
this purpose elsewhere. Franklin observes that the Cree of Cumberland 
House and westward had the platter game and the game of mittens and 
lacrosse.^ While Franklin's notes on lacrosse correspond with our data, 
the other two games were unknown to the Cree visited by the writer. It 
must be remembered, however, that the natives of Cumberland House were 
far enough west to have come in contact with the Plains tribes. 

The Cup and Pm Game (Tap-han). This is an old game and has two 
forms with several counting systems. The game seems to simulate the 
taking of caribou with spears and is played by any number of persons, 
each player playing imtil he fails to score, when he passes it on to the 
next one. As played at Eastmain River and Rupert's House, it consists of 
five worked caribou phalangeal bones, four of which are cut into conical 
shape, strung on a buckskin thong with a wooden or bone striking pin fas- 
tened at the end. The large open ends of the bones are nearest the pin, 
and when not in use rest one over the other. The joint of the topmost bone 
is not worked down, the thong passes through a hole in the top of the 
condyle where it is fastened to a piece of caribou tail. There are four 
holes, one on each side of the condyle. 

The object of the game is to toss the bones in the air and catch them on 

1 Franklin, 65. 



1911.] Skinner, The Eastern Cree. 37 

the striking pin, the eount being as follows: — each individual bone, count- 
ing away from the striking pin, 1, 2, 3, 5, 10. If more than one bone is 
caught^ the player receives the sum of the counts granted for each bone. 
If the pin penetrates the hole at the posterior of the condyle, 50; of the 
anterior, called "the back of the neck," 40; the right side and left sides, 
known as " the ears," 20, and 30, respectively. The caribou hair is known 
as "the tail," and if by any chance the pin catches in this, 100 is scored. 

At Moose Factory, catching the bones counts, 8, 10, 12, 15; but the 
other counts were not secured. Another form of the game which the Cree 
claim was derived from the Ojibway closely resembles the form seen by the 
writer among them just north of Lake Superior. The phalanx units are 
five in number and count one a piece, and twenty for each of the four holes 
surrounding the condyle. The difference between this game and the typical 
Cree form is that a piece of perforated buckskin is used instead of a caribou 
tail, each perforation counting 10. 

The Fort Albany- Cree count as follows : — 1 for each of the ten phalan- 
geal units; 5 for each ear; 10 for "the back of the neck"; 20 for each hole 
in the buckskin; stringing all the bones at once, 10 points; stringing the 
tail, 20 points; stringing the last bone next the tail, 10 points; catching any 
hole on the side of the bone, "the ear," 5 points; and catching the tail, 
the game, regardless of the former count. 

Bo2vs and Slings. Bows and blunt arrows, and the bow gun, the latter 
doubtless a European innovation, are seen in daily use by the Indian boys 
at all the Posts. ^ The bows range from several feet to five or six inches 
in length. Very diminutive ones are c^uite common. A sling was ob- 
served which consists of a small perforated piece of buckskin to which are 
attached two long thongs. It is whirled violently around the head for a 
moment, the user then lets go of one string, and the stone is propelled a 
considerable distance with no great degree of accuracy. 

The Otter Hunting Game. This game is played b^' two men. Ten 
wooden otters are set up, each smaller than the other, and shot at with 
pointed arrows. The game consists in hitting the smallest otter which is 
kept moving with a stick. When it is struck, the game is won. The game 
is lost to the player who shoots away all his arrows without hitting the 
smallest otter. 

The War Game. This was an old-time game played by men and boys 
to teach dexterity in dodging missiles, a necessary part of a warrior's edu- 
cation. It was naturally most extensively practised just before going to war. 
One man ran back and forth in front of the warriors who shot blunt arrows 
at him, which he attempted to dodge or ward off. 



1 Dr F. G. Speck lias ob.servcd the bow giin user! by Montagnais boys. 



38 Anthropological Papers American Museum of A^ttural History. [\'ol. IX, 

The Dart Game. A thong was tied to the end of a supple stick about 
three or four feet long, and a large arrow " with a big tail " notched to recei\'e 
the string was fastened to this. The object of this game was to throw the 
arrow up out of sight. 

Caribou Hunting Game. This game, observed by the writer among the 
Eastmain River Cree, is quite similar to that mentioned by Turner^ as 
found among the Naskapi. X board about a foot long and six inches high 
was carved to represent a caribou with a branching twig for antlers. This 
was set up on a stick about 18 inches high, and served as a target for a 
crowd of small boys, who from a distance of from six to ten feet flipped 
pebbles at it with a stick. This "pop-gun" was about ten inches long, 
rounded at the base, and tapered to a point. It was grasped at the 
rounded end with the right hand, and pressed against a pebble held between 
the thumb and forefinger of the left hand, the grip of the thumb and fore- 
finger being relaxed, the pebble was flipped or propelled forward as though 
b}' a catapult. Among the Naskapi, this game is played with bows and 
arrows, and the Cree also use these weapons for this purpose. 

Goose Hunting Game. Two boys representing hunters sit on the ground 
in a blind. Two others, carrying goose feathers in their hands, approach 
from different directions. As the}' draw near, the two hunters let fly pebbles 
at the feathers with their "flipping sticks" or "pop-guns." If they hit 
one, the carrier drops it. The hunter killing the most game wins. 

Square Game. This game resembles the European "puss in the corner," 
and "fox and geese." A square is drawn in the snow, and in the center 
stands the person who is "it" (called by the Indians "the cannibal"). 
The other players occupy the fom* corners of the square. The object of 
the game is to run from corner to corner without being touched by "the 
cannibal." If "the cannibal" succeeds in touching anyone, that person 
becomes "it" and takes his place. 

Lacrosse is said to have been played formerly at ]Moose Factory, but is 
now obsolete. 

Football. The game consists in kicking the ball from one goal to another. 
Any number can play, but usually the sides are fairly even. The only rule 
seems to be that no one is allowed to throw the ball. The goals are very 
close together, perhaps not more than one hundred feet apart. The ball is 
made of tanned skin, stuffed with hair, and is about as big as a man's head. 

Cat's cradle was observed but the forms and rules were not obtained. 
Hand ball is also a common game. The ball is similar to the football, but 
smaller, and there seem to be no rules. 



1 Turner, 326. 



1911.] Skinner, The Eastern Cree. 39 

A number of English or European games, especially cards, are much 
in vogue. Some occur in a modified form. Checkers, played with a regu- 
lation board, and thirty men, all of the same color, is the most prominent 
of these. Fox and geese, played with a board, two foxes and fifty geese, 
may also be seen. 

A windmill toy, made with six six-inch revolving blades, and a handle 
about three feet long, is made and fastened where the wind catches and 
whirls it. This is claimed by the Cree as an old native toy but is probably 
an importation. In former times, dolls were carved from wood, and fully 
dressed. Such dolls have been entirely displaced by the advent of toys 
of foreign make, and can no longer be obtained. Carvings of animals, 
fish, and birds, were also made. The children play with miniature wigwams 
and utensils. Little girls are fond of playing house and sometimes dress 
up puppies instead of dolls. Children are never whipped, but are allowed 
to do just about as they please without training of any kind. 

Smoking. The oldest form of pipe among the Ci'ee has an elongated 
stone bowl set upon a perforated base, and is according to McGuire's ^ classi- 




Fig. 16 (50-7046). Pipe from Eastmain River. Lengtli, 16 cm. 

fication of the INIicmac tj^pe. Through the basal perforation is fastened a 
cord, which is attached to the stem and prevents the bowl from falling off and 
breaking. While this is the common form of pipe among the Naskapi of 
Labrador and Unga\'a, as described hx Turner,^ it is now obsolete and very 
hard to obtain among the Eastern Cree. A specimen collected at Eastraain 
River Fort, is shown in Fig. 16. The stems of these pipes are made either 
of wood or of hollow lione. 

The modern stone pipe differs from the old form only in that the bowl is 
very much shorter, and that the string or thong from the bowl to the stem. 



1 McGuire, 479. 

2 Turner, 302. 




40 Anthropological Papers American Museiun of Xaturul History. [Vol. IX, 

and the stem itself are usually beaded. For commercial purposes these 
pipes are known as one, two, and three "beaver" pipes, 
according to their value in skins. They are now 
usually made to sell, but a very few are still used. Fig. 
17 is a stone pipe bowl coming from Fort Albany on 
the west coast of James Bay, and shows a type in use 
there. It has a large bowl, an imperforate base, nar- 
rowing below the bowl and expanding like the tail of a 
Fig. 17 (50-6960). fish. About the coustriction was tied a thoug f or f astcu- 

Pipe Bowl of Stone. ••...!, tj. • i i • tt 

Height, 5 cm ^^S it to the stem. It IS an old specimen. How uni- 

versally these were used on the west coast it is diffi- 
cult to determine. The east coast people claim that these pipes were 
common there. 

Red willow, and a ground-trailing plant called "minik (duck) leaf" 
were smoked, and, while admitting they have smoked and used pipes for a. 
long time, the Indians doubt that tobacco was ever gro^^^l by them. It is 
not now raised at any of their camps. 



DANCES. 

Memories of but few native dances now remain among the Eastern Cree 
and these have been set aside for the square dances of Europeans. For 
this reason, information concerning the old dances is very hard to obtain but 
so far as could be learned they were: — 

(1) The War Dance. From statements made by old Cree at ]Moose 
Factory, Rupert's House, and Eastmain River Fort, the writer gathered 
that this was preceded by the "Discovery Dance," in which the warriors 
imitated the pursuit, battle, and final defeat of the enemy. As its name 
implied, this dance was given before going into battle. 

(2) The Conjuring Dance. Like the war dance this ceremony took 
place before a battle, and was given to insure success over the enemy. 

(3) The Feasting, or Greeting Dance. The dance was held in the 
spring when the families came together at their chosen rendezvous. A 
sur\'ival made over into an English square dance, is still held at the Posts 
when the hunters arri\e in the spring. 

(4) The Deer (Caribou) Dance. 

(5) The Bear Dance. A small square enclosed yard was made and 
the conjuror sat in the middle and drummed. All the adults, men or women^ 
entered the enclosure and danced about the conjuror. 

(6) Mide Dance. Part of the midewin ceremonies of the Albany band 
partook of the nature of a dance. 



1911. 



Skinner, The Eastern Cree. 



41 



MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS. 



The musical instruments of the Eastern Cree are few in number. The 
drum and rattle are most common. Rattles were never used for an ac- 
companiment to singing or dancing, but only to soothe fretful children. 
Drums, however, were used, and these were like the shaman's drum, though 
different in some particulars. Dancing drums of Indian make have been 
entirely superseded by those bought from the Hudson's Bay Company. 
They are said to have been smaller in circumference and of greater depth. 
It is not known whether they were painted. No information as to the use 
of the flute was secured. ^ 

Of drums, two kinds are in vogue among the Eastmain and Labrador 
bands. The conjuror's drum is a foot or more in diameter and three or 
four inches thick. The heads are made of caribou parchment stretched 
across and held down by a narrow hoop. The rawhide on either side is 
then brought up around the outside of this hoop and held down by another; 
the opposite hoops are 
tightly laced by a rawhide 
thong. Both the upper and 
lower heads are crossed 
by a band bearing three 
dumb-bell shaped re- 
sounders. A loop of raw- 
hide is usually left at the 
top for suspension. The 
second variety, used only 
in social dances, is now 
obsolete. It was broader 
than the conjuror's drum, 
and probably not deco- 
rated, otherwise it resem- 
bled it closely. 

These drums are deco- 
rated by painting in ver- 
milion. The one shown in 
Fig. 18 is surrounded by a 

half inch band of red inside of which is a row of dots in \erniilion. In the 
center is a large dot surrounded by a circle of others. A row of large dots 




Fig. IS (50-7005). A Drum. Diameter, 44 cm. 



42 



Anthro'pological Papers American Museum of Natural History. \Xo\. IX, 



encircles the sides. The obverse is the samC; save that a tear in the drum 
head has been sewed up with sinew and the patch rubbed with vermiHon. 
This drum closely resembles one obtained by Turner among the Naskapi. 

The stick for beating such a 
drum is now made of an 
"Eley's" percussion cap box of 
tin, filled with shot and per- 
forated to receive the wooden 
handle at top and bottom, mak- 
ing a rattle as well as a drum- 
stick. Formerly, two discs of 
caribou horn fastened to sides 
made by a circular band of this 
substance were used for a rattle 
box and drumstick head. 

The Albany Cree have three 
types of drums? a narrow 
double-headed, a long cylindrical double-headed drum, and a tambourine 
drum. All of these were used at feasts. By this band, the rattle was 
used to keep time for singing and conjuring. Fig. 19 represents a typical 
rattle. It is circular, one side projecting to form a handle. The sides are 
held together by wooden pegs. The pieces of rawhide are stretched over 
it to form the heads and these are sewed with sinew along the sides. Some- 
times the rawhide is also stretched over the handle. 




Fig. 19 (50-7002). A Rattle. Diameter, 12 cm. 



TRA\'EL AND TRAXSPORTATIOX. 



Owing to the great extent of the dense northern forests, overland trails 
are practically imknown. INIost of the summer tra^•eling to and from 
Hudson's Bay is done by canoe along the rivers. The canoe birch does not 
grow to a large size in the northern part of the range of the Eastern Cree, 
or else the bigger trees have been destroyed l)y the Indians so that birchbark 
canoes are becoming rarer every year at Eastmain River Fort and Rupert's 
House. Owing to this scarcity, those seen by the writer were made of 
many small pieces of bark. 

Owing to the difficulty in obtaining birchbark it has long been imported 
in rolls for canoe and tent-making. Now, however, most canoes and 
wigwams are covered with canvas purchased from the Hudson's Bay Com- 



1911.] Skimier, The Ea>itern Cne. 43 

pany. At Rupert's House, in 1908, there was not a single birchbark canoe, 
all those seen were canvas-covered. 

The Eastern Cree canoes have lower and less rounded bows than those 
of the Ojibway, who border the southern part of their country*. The 
writer Avas informed, however, that the canoes used at Fort George, and in 
Ungava and northward along the Hudson's Bay proper, have such very 
high bows that they are called "crooked" canoes. This is to aid in battling 
with the waves on the open sea. 

Canoes average twelve or fifteen feet in length, but those used by the 
Labrador voyageurs are often twice that size and sometimes more. They 
are capable of bearing enormous weights, and many will hold twenty or 
more men. The paddles used are short and rather clumsy. They have 
no swelling at the end of the handle to facilitate the grip. In paddling, 
the Eastern Cree take shorter and more jerky strokes than their Ojibway 
neighbors on the south, ^^'hen a fair wind is blowing, a blanket or even a 
bush is set up in the bow for a sail. In shooting rapids, the men at the bow 
and stern (the bowsman, by the way, is considered the leader) always stand 
upright in the canoe when approaching the head of the rapids and gaze 
down the stream for a moment, noting the easiest course for travel in an 
incredibly short space of time. When the\- reach rapids which are known 
to be bad, they sometimes go ashore and follow down the stream to examine 
the course. If the rapids prove wild, the canoe is then lightened and they 
proceed, or portage around, as the case may be. All steering in the rapids 
is done from the bow, the man in the stern merely keeping the boat straight. 
In ascending streams, it is usual to pole up many of the rapids. Tliis is 
accomplished by pushing from the bow and stern. WTiere the water is too 
deep for poles and too swift for paddling, the canoe is towed from the 
shore by one of the voyageurs. Bundles are carried across portages by 
means of a burden strap which passes across the forehead. However, not 
a single specimen of "tump line" of aboriginal make was observed. 

In winter, sleds drawn by Eskimo dogs, are used in traveling, but 
according to the Indians this custom was derived from the Eskimo, from 
whom the Eastern Cree still purchase dogs for this purpose. A dog harness 
of Indian make is shown in Fig. 20. Toboggans are used to draw provisions 
when traveling. They are seven or eight feet long, narrow, and slightly 
turned up in front. Sleds to transport canoes oxer the snow are still used, 
and the type is said to be ancient. Fig. 21 represents one of these, drawn 
from a model which does not represent the old style canoe sled. The canoe 
was placed bottom upwards and bound on. 

The snowshoes in vogue on the coast are short, light, and flat at the ends. 
They are all made expressly for running and jumping or when following the 



44 



Anthropological Papers American Museum of Natural History. [Vol. IX, 



dog sleds. Three types were observed: — (1) elongated west coast type, 
specimens of which were obtained, but had to be discarded along the Moose 
River on the return trip; (2) round east coast type, with pointed tail; (3) 




Fig. 20 (50-7065). Dog Harness. 



round eastern interior and Labrador type with rounded tail. "Bush" or 
forest snowshoes, are long, large, heavy, and turned up in front. The 
man's size ranges from four to five feet in length. They are used for travel- 




Fig. 21 (50-7989). A Toboggan 



ing in deep snow in the forest. For teaching children to use snowshoes, 
small round "bear's foot" type shoes are used. The pair here shown 
(Fig. 22) came from Rupert's House. Chisels of beaver teeth were once 
used in perforating the framework of snowshoes. 



1911.] 



Skinner, The Eastern Cree. 



45 





Fig. 22 (50-7018, 800.!!). Snowshoes. 



In weaving the gut net of the snowshoes, bone needles, 
perforated in the mififlle, about three inches long and 
pointed at the ends, are used (Fig. 23). For untying the 
laces of the snowshoes when frozen, and the fingers are too 
numb with cold to manipulate them, one of the inferior 
maxillae of the lynx is used. It is not worked in any way 
(Fig. 24). 

For carrying chil- 
dren, a simple bag laced 
up the front and stuffed 
" with moss is used. In 

Fig. 2.3 (50-7001). permanent camp, how- 
Needle for netting ^y^^ ^ ij^bv board is 

Snowshoes. Length, " . Fig. 24 (50-7052). The Maxilla of 

9 cm. used (tig. 2o). I O this a Lynx for untying Snowshoe Laces. 




46 



Anthropological Papers American Museum of Natural History [Vol. IX^ 



a strip of cloth or skin is fastened along the sides. It laces up in front and 

is stuffed with moss to make the child comfort- 
able and to absorb urine. For this purpose, the 
drawers and trousers of small boys and girls are 
also stuffed with dry moss. 

A line of twisted caribou rawhide rubbed 
with \'ermilion and decorated at inter\als with 
beads and puffs of goose down resembles very 
nuich the caribou snare figured and described by 
Turner as occurring among the Naskapi. It 
differs, howe^■er, in 
that at its termina- 
tion it is bound to 
an elongate oval 
pointed piece of 
birch wood painted 
red, from which pro- 
jects a notched l)one 
barb at an angle of 





Fig. 25 (50-694?.). A Cradle. 



Fig. 26 (50-6988). 

45 degrees. This line ture Basket. 



A niinia- 



is used to drag home 
caribou carcasses in winter, and the hook is to hoist up the green skins 
beyond the reach of the dogs. These implements are considered of great 
importance by the Indians, who often hand them down from father to son. 
Songs are occasionally sung in their honor. 




Fig. 27 (50-8082). A decorated Basket made of Birchbark. Length, 26 cm. 



1911.] Skinner, The Eastern Cree. 47 

Carrying baskets of birchbark are used in traveling. They have exten- 
sion tops of leather or cloth closing with a drawstring and are carried by a 
headl)and. Fig. 26 shows a miniature one of these from Rupert's House, 
and Fig. 27 another with decorated sides, top, and bottom, from Lake 
Mistassini. 



SIGNS AND SIGNALS. 

In traveling through the trackless northern forests fellow-travelers are 
rarely met, and some means of communication between the nomadic Indian 
households being necessary, a series of signs has been evolved. Writing 
of a realistic character on birchbark was no doubt once used but this art 
is now lost on account of the introduction, by the missionaries, of a system 
of syllabic writing quite comparable to oin- shorthand. Besides these two 
methods of communication, a third form, probably as old as the first, still 
survives. This is by means of signs set up along trails and at camping 
grounds, especially in the winter, the season of activity. 

A party about to leave a certain spot, and wishing any one following it 
to know at what time the camp was left, will draw a circle in the snow and 
set up a stick in the middle, marking the shadow of the stick as cast by the 
sun on the snow at that time. The next person to come along will at once 
judge by the distance of the shadow from the mark how long it has been 
since the first party left. The age of the circle or of a nearby track is reck- 
oned by its appearance, the fall of snow upon it, and other indications. 

The distance of a preceding party's camp is represented by the height 
at which a perpendicular twig intersects the oblique stick. 

To mark a trail, a stick is placed obliquely on the ground, the ele\ated 
end pointing in the direction taken, and trees blazed to show the path. 
If the path deviates, sticks are inclined in that direction. 

A signal to express "we are starving" is made by girdling and sha\ing a 
standing tree. This is done in order that a chance passer-by may perhaps 
bring aid. A sign of "plenty, nothing wrong" is made by blazing a tree 
on opposite sides. If visitors are welcome, a stick is inclined in the direction 
of the camp. 

Death in camp is signified by girdling and shaving the trunk of a stand- 
ing tree, painting the cut part black, with charcoal, and felling the tree so 
that the cut base rests on the stump, or if it is a small tree, by tying down the 
top. The size of the tree represents the age of the person; an old or large 
tree meaning an old person, and a young sapling, a child. The number of 
trees so marked, indicates the number of deaths. 



48 Anthropological Papers American Museum of N^atural History. [Vol. IX, 

A signal for the convocation of all the neighboring Indians is made by 
repairing to a small island on some lake, where little damage can be done, 
and burning the timber. The ascending smoke is visible for a long distance 
in the clear northern atmosphere. A signal meaning "come here", is made 
by burning birchbark on a rock. It gi\'es oft' a dense black smoke and when 
done in calm weather, a high steady column of smoke is obtained. 



DIVISIONS OF TIME. 

The Cree year is divided into eight seasons and twelve months, or moons. 
The seasons are: sigun, spring before open water; miluskamin, spring, 
after the water is open and before summer; nipin, early summer; megwani- 
piu, middle summer; tukwagun, early autumn; migiskau, late autumn; 
pichipipun, early winter, just before the frost; megwapipun, late winter. 
The months or moons are: January, gishepapiwatekimumpizun, the moon 
when the old fellow spreads the brush ;^ February, cepizun, old month; 
March, migisupizun, eagle month; April, misklpizun, gra^' goose month; 
May, aligipizun, frog month; June, saglpukawipizun, the month leaves 
come out; July, opaskwuwipizun, the moon when ducks begin to moult; 
August, opunhopizun, the moon young ducks begin to fly; September, 
weweoplzun, wa\y or snow goose month; October, opinahamowipizun, 
the moon the birds fly south; November, kaskatinopizun, the moon the 
rivers begin to freeze; December, papiwatiginashispizvm, the moon in 
which the 3'oung fellow spreads the brush. 

In this connection it is interesting to note the names of the months and 
seasons as collected by Harmon.^ They are as follows: "Winter, A-pe-pook 
or Pepoon; Spring, Me-is-ka-mick or Se-gum-uck; Summer, Nic-pin 
Autumn, Tuck-wa-gin." It will be seen that he gives but four seasons, 
following the European idea, probably not suspecting that the Cree made 
any difference in this respect. Of these, the terms for all but summer and 
early autumn differ from our information. In regard to the months he has: 
"January, Kush-a-pa-was-ti-ca-num o Pes-im, Extreme cold Moon; Feb- 
ruar}^ Kee-chay o Pes-im, The ISIoon when small birds begin to chirp or 



1 This means literally, the moon when the old fellow, that is, the winter, causes the pine 
needles to drop on the snow, forming a covering, like the pine boughs laid on the floor of a 
wigwam for bedding. The laying of these boughs on the wigwam floor is called, "spreading 
the brush." 

- Harmon, 321. 



1911.1 



Skinner, The Eastern Cree. 



49 



sing; or Kich-ee o Pes-im, Big, or old Moon; March. Me-ke-su o Pes-im, 
Eagle Moon; April, Nis-ka o Pes-im, Goose Moon, as at this season, these 
animals return from the south; May, I-ieh-e Pes-im, Frog Moon; June, 
0-pin-a-wa we Pes-im, the Moon in which birds begin to lay their eggs; 
July, O pus-ko we Pes-im, The Moon when birds cast their feathers; August, 
0-pa-ko we Pes-im, The Moon when the young birds begin to fly; September, 
Wa-was-kis o Pes-im, The ]\Ioon when the moose ^ cast their horns; or 
A-pin-nas-ko o Pes-im, The Moon when the leaves fall off from the trees; 
October, 0-no-chi-hit-to-wa o Pes-im, The rutting Moon; or 0-ke-wa-ow 
o Pes-im, The ^Nloon when the fowls go to the south; November, Ay-e-coop- 
ay o Pes-im, Hoar frost Moon. Kus-kut-te-no o Pes-im, Ice Moon; Decem- 
ber, Pa-watch-e-can-a-nas o Pes-im, Whirlwind Moon." 

Mackenzie says : — 

"With respect to their di\'isions of time, they compute the length of 
their journies by the number of nights passed in performing them; and they 
divide the year by the succession of moons. In this calculation, however, 
they are not altogether correct, as they cannot account for the odd days. 

The names which they give to the moons are descriptive of the several 
seasons. 



May 


Atheiky o Pishim. 


June 


Oppinu o Pishim. 


July 


Aupascen o Pishim. 


August 


Aupaliou Pishim. 


September 


Waskiseon o Pishim. 


October 


Wisac Pishim. 


November 


Thithigon Pewai o Pishim. 




Kuskatinayoui o Pishim. 


December 


Pawatchicananasis o Pishim. 


January 


Kushapawasticanum o Pishim 


February 


Kichi Pishim. 


IMarch 


Mickysue Pishim. 


April 


Niscaw o Pishim. 



Frog-Moon. 

The ^Nloon in which birds be- 
gin to lay their eggs. 

The ]Moon when birds cast 
their feathers. 

The Moon when the young 
birds begin to fly. 

The ]Moon ^\"hen the moose- 
deer cast their horns. 

The Rutting ^loon. 

Hoar-Frost-AIoon . 

Ice-Moon. 

Whirlwind-Moon. 

Extreme cold Moon. 

Big Moon; some say, Old 
Moon. 

Eagle Moon. 

Goose-Moon." - 



I A case of mistaken identity. 
Virginia deer. 

- IMaclfenzie, 73. 



Tiie Cree for moose is MusE; wa-wash-tcesli is the 



50 



Anthropological Papers American Museum of Natural History. [Vol. IX, 



It will be found that differences exist between the lists in regard to the 
names for the months of June, September^ November, and December. 
Of course, allowances must be made for translation, orthography, and 
dialect. It is interesting to note that Harmon in some cases gives two 
synonyms for the same month, whereas the writer collected none. The 
absolute differences may best be accounted for by local environment, some 
natural occurrences being more emphatically notable in one locality than 
in another. 



MISCELLANEOUS. 

Lcc/skin Bags. Women's bags, made of the skin of the legs of the 
caribou, are to be found in every well-regulated Cree wigwam. These bags 
are of various sizes (Fig. 28) and are used to carry family effects. One seen 




it ^ Mm 



X'li Ik// 






Fig. 28 (50-7059). Bag made of Caribou Leg fikins. Length, 48 cm. 



by the writer looked as if the hair had been remo\ed, but as close examina- 
tion was not possil)le, it may be that this was the result of attacks by moths. 



1911.1 



Skinner, The Eastern Cree. 



51 




Fig. 29 (.50-6991). 
Length, 29 cm. 



Bag made of Caribou Ears. 



A peculiar feature of these 

bags, which lace up at the top, 

is a skin handle on each end. 

A small bag, similar to some 

of the preceding (Fig. 29) re- 
sembles the leg-skin bags in 

every particular save that it is 

made of the skin of caribou's 

ears. Netted carrying bags are 

used to transport clothing and 

utensils. They are now made 

of commercial twine, but formerly were composed of twisted bark string. 
Needle cases are made of hollow bird bones stopped up at one end 

(Fig. 30). They greatly resemble the bone tubes found on the prehistoric 
and early historic Iroquoian sites of Western New York, 
Southeastern Ontario, Canada, and on the sites of the 
Madisonville culture in Ohio and Kentucky. These 
prehistoric tubes were in some cases undoubtedly used 
as beads, and in others as paint pots, but they may 
also have had a use as needle cases, like those seen 
among the Cree. 

Snow shovels of wood are commonly used. They 
are four or five feet long and resemble long spoons or 
scoops. Fig. 31 represents ' 

a small specimen of a type 
used as to}'s by the 
children. 

Grooved Stone A.ve.'i. In 
former times, the Eastern 

Cree used grooved stone axes. The blade was set in a 
handle, split at one end, and bound above and below 
the split with deerskin. Stone celts were fastened in 
wooden handles, the handle being at right angles to 
the blade as in an adze. These were used as ice chisels. 
When working wood, fire was not used by these people 
to aid in cutting. The Cree at ]Moose Factory stated 
that some axes for cutting branches for firewood were 
made of deer (caribou or moose) shoulder blades or 
beaver rump bones. 
Fig. 31 (.50-6983) Crooked Knives. These were made of beaver's teeth. 

A snow Shovel. A set of beaver's teeth so used was collected at East- 



Fig. 
Case. 



30 (.50-7000). 
Length, 6 cm. 



Needle 




52 



Anthropological Papers American Museum of Natural History. [Vol. IX, 



main River Fort (Fig. 32). The Indian from whom the implement was 
secured claimed that it had no handle, but was merely held in the hand. 
Others, however, disagreed with him, and claimed that 
such knives had wooden handles. Steel or iron-bladed 
crooked knives are now used (Fig. 33). 

Chisels of beaver's teeth, with wooden handles were 
used in making snowshoes in the old days. 

Stone Knives The Cree of Moose Factory claim to 
have made flint knife blades by percussion, but those 
at Rupert's House and east and north of there made 
slate knife blades by rubbing. When it was neces- 
sary to sharpen such knives, they were rubbed with 
limestone, wetting it with saliva. 




Fig. 32 (50-7053). 
A Knife made of Bea- 
ver Teeth. 




Fig. 33 (50-6955). A crooked Kiiife. Length, 25 cm. 

Slate semilunar scrapers, identical in shape with the Eskimo woman's 
knife, or ulu, were used as fleshers in working skins. 

Bags are made of the bladder of the black bear, to hold grease for various 
purposes. 





Fig. 34 (50-7845). Snow Spectacles. 



1911.] Skinner, The Eastern Cree. 53 

Snow spectacles of birchbark are worn (Fig. 34). These go over the 
nose. As they are blackened inside, and not perforated at all, if the wearer 
wishes to look out he is obliged to tilt his head back and look out from under 
them. 

Splint baskets are never made nor are mats of any sort manufactured 
by the Eastern Cree who claim never to have had them. However, they 
now purchase cheap Japanese matting from the traders. Baskets of birch- 
bark are used when the material is obtainable, but if not, pine bark is used 
for the purpose. The bark baskets are usually oblong with rounded corners 
and are of one piece, sewed at the corners with roots. About the top, they 
have a couple of withes, bound or sewn on to make a firm edge. 



ART. 

The art of the Eastern Cree is meager in comparison with that of some 
other Algonkin peoples. Originally, but few designs were used for purely 
decorative purposes, the majority of them having a religious or utilitarian 
significance, while the protective designs so well known to some of their 
neighbors were apparently unknown. Nowada;s's, when the former order 
of things has been quite thoroughly l^roken up through European influence, 
the old meanings have become obscured or lost, and many religious symbols 
have become decorative. 

Painting is considered by the Eastern Cree to be their aboriginal form 
of art. It has now largely disappeared and what is left is debased in char- 
acter. It was used for all purposes, religious, utilitarian, and decorative. 

No hair or quill embroidery was obtained or seen by the writer, and the 
natives claim that the porcupine is too rare in their country to furnish quills 
for the purpose. It seems probable, however, that dyed hair work preceded 
the modern silk embroidery on moccasins, pouches, and other utensils. 
Beadwork is said to have been unknown in pre-European days. 

The old painted designs of religious import included those on the skins 
and skulls of bears, and the skins of other animals, on the inner surface of 
skin garments, and on the faces of the natives themselves. Of the former, 
all the designs were geometric, generally consisting of lines or bars, and dots 
painted in red. The symbolism of this painting is difficult or impossible to 
obtain. A frequent motif of admittedly esoteric meaning is a rectangular 
cross, the two perpendicular bars being represented in each case b}^ five dots 
(Fig. 35a). This design occurs on the skins of animals, where it is placed 



54 



Anthropological Papers American Museum of Nalural History. [\'ol IX, 



with the idea of propitiating the animal's spirit, and as a decorative border 
on skin tents, in conjunction with other figures, among them soHd rectangu- 
lar crosses. We have also observed dot figures similar to the sacred crosses 
painted on shaman's drums. The paintings on the inner surface of the 
skin represents the animal from which it was taken. Red daubs outline 
the eyes of the animal when the skin of its head is used as a hood. These 
markings symbolize that the skin is animate and able to imbue the owner 



• 


• 










0+0+0+ 




^OOOOOOO 


Ooooo o oo 


oooooooo 




©LRIOU 



MKix i xix i x -Mar 



[XtXbKlXlXlXlXl 



~i_rLrLn. 

"T-p-aj^^UJ ixb<ixixixixfx:i 
n,nj L,n n n D<i><b<b<lxi:5<[><r 

b 
Fig. 35. A Series of painted Designs. 

witli tlie special powers of the particular animal from which it M-as stripped, 
such as speed, endurance, or strength. 

Facial paintings were realistic representing the animal, or a portion of 
the animal upon which the wearer mainly depended for food. The idea is 
to propitiate the spirits of the game and thus insure future abundance of 
the food supply. 

The second use of painting is realistic and economic, and consists of life 



1911.] Skitiiier, The Eastern Cree. 55 

forms designed as property marks on tents. The figures represent the 
owner in pursuit of the animal upon which he chiefly depends for food, and 
may also have a slight religious meaning. In the old days, it was also 
customary to paint animals' heads on the liows of Inrchbark canoes, perhaps 
for the same purpose. 

The third and last use is entirely ornamental and decorative, as shown 
by the border designs on tents and skin clothing. As many designs as 
could be obtained are given in Fig. 3ob. By preference, all painting is done 
in red (now \-ermilion) but when there was a lack of pigment^ or to \ary 
the monotony, black,, and occasionally blue, green, and yellow were used. ^ 
The painting on the tents consisted of a single decorative border about the 
bottom, surmounted by a figure of the owner in pursuit of the kind of game 
upon which he most largely subsisted. On leather coats there were often 
placed from one to three decorative borders about the skirts with a single 
row up the front. There were double rows around the cuffs and on the 
sleeves (Fig. 4); one at the wrist, one just below and one just above the 
elbow, and one at the shoulder. The lower border is also much more 
ornate than those described to the writer. However, as has been stated, 
the art of the Eastern Cree is now degenerated, and such coats and tents 
are obsolete, so that doubtless many features which once existed are now 
forgotten. According to Dr. Speck, the Penobscot make similar beaded 
designs which have a protecti\e significance and con\entionaIly represent 
herb medicines. 

In the southeastern part of their territory, at least, the Cree employ 
decorated birchbark for various utensils. A single specimen obtained by 
the writer from the jNIistassini \'o\ageurs, was a carrying basket made of 
birchbark, on which, as is here shown, are certain figures which appear 
to be conventionalized life forms, perhaps plants (Fig. 27). The designs, 
in dark brown or black on a light background, are made by scraping the 
inner surface of fresh bark, the part scraped becoming white, while the un- 
touched places remain dark. This is said to be a common Montagnais 
form of decoration and as the only specimen obtained came from a region 
frequented by them, it may perhaps be due to their influence. Incised 
decorations appear upon the bases of stone pipes. 

Beaded shoulder bands, or bandoliers, and side pouches for powder, 
shot, percussion caps, etc., are used sparingly by the Eastern Cree, who 
claim them to be very modern in idea and art. The designs are usually 
flower patterns like those seen on moccasins. They are considered " lucky 
in hunting", and the Indians dislike to part with them. 

1 Red dyes were made from roots, the names of wliich were not obtained. Yellow or 
orange was obtained from the willow. Dark purple was secured by boiling willow roots 
and bark together. . 



56 Anthropological Papers American Museum of Xatural Histori/. [\\)1 IX, 

Strings or tassels of beads may be seen on many objects "where they are 
generally placed for decorative purposes. An old pair of woman's cloth 
leggings (Fig. 5) bears beaded designs of a more primitixe character resem- 
bling those painted on Xaskapi skin garments. 

In conclusion, it may be said that the old art of the Eastern Cree is 
realistic and geometric. In the latter case angular forms prevail, circular 
designs being rare except on clothing and bark vessels. The antiquity of 
the flower designs seen on moccasms, pouches and the like, is disclaimed by 
the Cree. Indeed, some specimens may be found that have realistic repre- 
sentations of plants and flowers not found in the New World, as for example, 
the shamrock, of which the Indians have learned from Irish missionaries. 
A number of examples of these figures in silk and beadwork, were collected. 
The Cree claim that moccasins were always plain in the old days. This 
statement is borne out in every particular by their neighbors, the Northern 
Saulteaux. 

In regard to the bead and silkwork flower designs (the latter, by the way, 
greatly outnumber the former), the Cree claim these forms to be entirely 
of recent acquisition, and that they never used caribou, moose, deer, or 
horse hair, for embroidery, but on the other hand, the manager for the 
Hudson's Bay Company at ^Nloose Factory stated that the company sold 
great quantities of dyed horse hair to the Indians for decorative purposes 
before they could obtain cheap colored silks. 



SOCIAL ORGAXIZATIOX. 

At all Posts visited by the writer, save at Fort Albany, the Cree have 
no recollection of a clan organization, and believe that there never was one 
among them. The general social unit seems to have been the patriarchal 
family. The clans once found among the Albany Cree, may have been 
derived from the Northern Saulteaux. The Albany natives remember 
the following totems, but there were many others which they could not 
recall: moose, caribou, fish, sucker, sturgeon, loon, and Hell-diver. The 
whale and seal were never known. Some of the old men are of the opinion 
that in former times young men occasionally dreamed the clan to which 
they were to belong, as well as their personal guardians. Descent was in 
the father's line and there were no marriage restrictions. 

On-ing to the scarcity of food, permanent village communities could not 
exist, as the Eastern Cree are obliged to scatter through the forest, a family 



1911.) Skinner, The Eadern Cree. 57 

here and a family there, often many miles apart. Usually, a man hunted 
with his sons and their families, but when these grew large, they separated. 
Formerly, rendezvous were made at some central point every spring for tlie 
purpose of reuniting. During the two or three weeks of their duration, 
the few ceremonies and councils of these people were held, and the miteo,. 
or prophet, prophesied the events of the coming year before the assemblage. 
At this time the feasting or greeting dance was held. 

Now, the Cree meet at the Posts of the Hudson's Bay Company, bring- 
ing in the winter's hunt of furs to trade for the necessities of the following 
season. They spend from two to four weeks at the Posts and then return 
to their scattered hunting grounds. 

At Moose Factory and other Posts comparative!}' near civilization, a 
nominal chief is now appointed by the Canadian Government to receive 
treaty moneys and to represent the Indians. Formerly, the chief was the 
best warrior and most trustworthy man. He was not elected or appointed, 
but acquired his office by tacit consent at the death of the former incumbent. 
He was not necessarily a relative of the dead man. A young man rarely 
attained office, owing to the requirements. The orders of the chief had to 
be obeyed, especially in time of war, but revolts and civil wars, especially 
where two men of ability were located in the same district, were not un- 
common. If one chief was conquered, then the opposition carried the day. 

Marriage. AYith reference to marriage customs, Mackenzie remarks: 
"When a young man marries, he immediatel}' goes to live with the father 
and mother of his wife, who treat him, nevertheless, as a perfect stranger, 
till after the birth of his first child : he then attaches himself more to them 
than his own parents; and his wife no longer gives him any other denomi- 
nation than that of the father of her child." ^ 

According to the writer's informants, marriages were arranged by the 
older people, the parents of the young folks in question. The girl was 
brought to the young man's house by her father or mother. The young 
people themselves had very little choice about the matter, as whatever 
the parents considered a suitable match was made without consulting them. 
Polygamy was once common but has now been given up. The number of 
wives varied from four to five. The first wife had the most authority. 
A man marrying the eldest of a group of sisters, usually if he married again, 
took the younger sisters as they became old enough, it being considered 
that the sisters were much less apt to quarrel among themselves than wives 
from various families. Mackenzie is responsible for the statement that, 
"When a man loses his wife, it is considered as a duty to marr^^ her sister, 
if she has one; or he may, if he pleases, have them both at the same time." ^ 

1 Mackenzie, 68. 

2 Mackenzie, 67. 



5S Atithrowlom'col PoiHr!> American Museum of Xaiural History. [\'ol. IX, 

According to our data, girls married at about fifteen years of age; men 
when they became good hiuiters. A yoinig man often took an elderly 
woman as she had had exp)erience and was better able to manage his aft'airs. 
Small presents were made to the brides parents. At present, the unmarried 
girls are Uix in virtue. ^larried women, however, are quite faithful to 
their vows. This is an old fault, for even in his day ^lackenzie says: — 

"It does not api>ear, that chastity is considered by them as a virtue; or that 
fidehty is believed to be essential to the happiness of wedded life. Though it some- 
times happens that the infideUty of a wife is punished by the husband with the loss 
of her hair. nose, and perhaps hfe; such severity proceeds from its having been 
practised without his permission: for a temporary interchange of wives is not un- 
common: and the offer of their persons is considered as a necessary part of the 
hospitahty due to strangers." ^ 

Carver says : — 

'*I observed that this people stiU continued a custom, that appeared to have been 
universal before any of them became acquainted with the manners of the Em-opeans, 
that of complimenting strangers with the company of their wives: and this is not 
only practised by the lower ranks, but by the chiefs themselves, who esteem it the 
greatest proof of courtesy they can give a stranger." - 

The education of children receives no small attention, though we did 
not learn that much care is now devoted to them. According to ^lac- 
kenzie: — "To their children they are indulgent to a fault. The father, 
though he assumes no command over them, is e\"er anxious to instruct them 
in all the preparatory qualifications for war and hunting; while the mother 
is equally attentive to her daughters in teaching them every thing that is 
considered as necessary to their character and situation. It does not appear 
that the husband makes an\" distinction between the children of his wife, 
though they may be the off-spring of different fathers. Illegitimacy is 
only attached to those who are bom before their mothers have cohabited 
with any man by the title of husband." ^ 

In regard to the diA'ision of labor, there seem to be no generally regarded 
rules, for men nowadays perform almost any tasks as well as women, re- 
gardless of their nature. At an earlier date we read : — 

■"The profession of the men is war and himting, and the more active scene of 
their duty is the field of battle, and the chase in the woods. Thej' also spear fish, 
but the management of the nets is left to the women. The females of this nation 
are in the same subordinate state with those of all other savage tribes; but the 
severitv of their labotu- is much diminished by their situation on the banks of lakes 



1 Mackenzie, 67. 
• Car^-er. SI. 
^ Mackenzie, 67. 



1911.] Skinner, The Easlern Cree. 59 

and rivers, where they employ canoes. In the winter, when the waters are frozen, 
they make their joumies, which are never of way great length, with sledges drawn by 
dogs. They are, at the same time subject to everj- kind of domestic drudgery: 
they dress the leather, make the clothes and shoes, weave the nets, collect wood, 
erect the tents, fetch water, and perform every culinary service; so that when the 
duties of maternal care are added, it will appear that the life of these women is an 
uninterrupted succession of toil and pain. This, indeed, is the sense they entertain 
of their own situation; and, under the influence of that sentiment, thej- are some- 
times known to destroy their female children, to save them from the miseries which 
they themselves have suffered. They also have a read}- way, by the use of certain 
simples, of procuring abortions, which they sometimes practise, from their hatred 
of the father, or to save themselves the trouble which children occasion: and, as I 
have been credibly informed, this unnatural act is repeated without any injiu-y to 
the health of the women who perpetrate it."' 



RELIGION. 

Owing to the universal acceptance of the Christian faith as inculcated 
\)\ missionaries from the Church of England for many decades, and at Fort 
Albany and westward by the Roman Cathohc fathers, the Eastern Cree 
have either almost entirely gi\'en up their ancient religion, or have so 
thickly veneered it with Christianity that it is well nigh impossible to obtain 
any information in regard to their old beliefs. Certain it is that they were, 
as is so universal in North America, polytheistic, and that the idea of a 
single "great spirit," (Kitche-manitou) is entirely a European importation; 
and none are more positive of this than the Cree themselves. 

The economic conditions of their country are so hard, and so much 
depends on the fortunes of the chase, that almost the whole life of these 
people is spent in sacrifices propitiating the souls of animals upon which 
they subsist in order to secure more certainly the future food supply, and 
in appealing to the great powers of nature for aid in the struggle for existence. 

The winds are supposed to be four brothers, the eldest and most power- 
ful of whom is the north wind (Kiwetinung-nizeo). It is he who sends the 
cold and has, as well, the power and aijility to j^iniish evil doers. If in 
thawing weather a north wind is desired, a snow man is made and set up 
on the ice, facing the north, or a "witch's broom" (a diseased growth 
appearing on coniferous trees) is sometimes set upon the ice. On the 
other hand, to turn the wind from the north, a stone is wet by spitting upon 
it, then a bit of charcoal placed on the saliva, and struck with another stone 

I Mackenzie, 68. 



60 Anthropological Papers American Museum of Natural History. [Vol. IX,. 

to cause a loud report. Next to the north wind in importance is Nikapi- 
hun-nizeo, the west wind. He is a favorable person, good and generous to 
mankind. This is the best hunting wind. Wapanung-nizeo, the east 
wind, is a stingy fellow, he starves the people, and will give them nothing 
to eat. Shawanung-nizeo, the south wind, gives food in summer, and has 
charge of it. He gives the berries. 

Hunters and others to whom the wind is of importance use a bull roarer 
to bring it. They sit up all night manipulating this instrument. Its con- 
nection with the wind probably lies in its noise, which resembles the rush 
of the wind. Three kinds of bull roarers were used. The first is made of a 
bone fastened to two hand grips of cedar string about a foot long, on either 
side, or a many-pointed round serrated wooden block doubly perforated 
and attached to thongs in a similar manner. Again, a rectangular wooden 
block, is used in the same manner. These forms are all worked by 
revolving the central piece on itself which winds and unwraps the sinew 
strings. When these are wound up, they are stretched and relaxed 
alternately, causing the central piece to revolve on itself with great 
rapidity, making a loud buzzing or humming noise. Instruments of this 
kind are usually spoken of as buzzers by ethnologists. Another is lanceolate 
and serrated. It is attached by a perforation in a perforation in the rounded 
end to a cord fastened to a hand grip. It is manipulated by taking the hand 
grip in one hand and swinging around the head by the cord. These imple- 
ments are rarely used as toys. 

To bring snow, a rabbit (hare) skin is thrown into the fire and singed. 
The reason for this is that the rabbit's skin is as white as the snow in which 
he lives in winter, and which he loves when deep. He is the winter's friend, 
and if his hair is burned, the winter is offended and angry. To bring rain 
a roasting spit that is greasy and covered with old flesh is picked clean with 
the teeth. This action of the teeth and saliva in cleaning the stick sym- 
bolizes the rain, which washes the roasting spit clean. 

Shamanism. The Eastern Cree had an esoteric medicine society re- 
sembling to some extent the Ojibway midewin. In fact, it goes b}^ the 
same name among the Albany Cree who arc in contact with the Saulteaux. 
It was composed of but two degrees among the Labrador and Eastmain 
l)ands. Initiatory ceremonies from the lower to the higher are held. There 
were formerly four degrees among the INIoose and Albany Cree but the 
society no longer exists as an organized body and the degrees are obsolete. 
Admission was through dreams, and progress from the lower to the higher 
degree was made by ^'isions in which the secrets of the higher office are 
revealed to the noA-ice. The process to be followed in order for a youth 
to gain admission into the midewin, was as follows: — 



1911.] Skinner, The Eastern Cree. 61 

The young man. when lie reached the proper age for him to take up the 
duties of manhood, would repair to a secluded spot in the forest and there 
wait and fast night and day for a week or ten days, according to his powers 
of endurance. During this time, the supplicant prayed and waited for 
supernatural dreams or visions in which he expected his future would be 
expounded to him. While waiting for these dreams, he stayed and slept 
upon a scaffold built on poles and about ten or twelve feet high. 

The ordinary dreams vouchsafed to a youth, concerned his guardian 
spirit, usually some animal, and informed him through this mediimi of 
what things he was to do. what tasks he must perform, what charms or 
fetishes he must keep about him in order to be successful in his vocation, 
generally that of a hunter. Sometimes, on the contrary, the dreams were 
of a different character, and the yoimg man had \isions of great power and 
strength bestowed from supernatural sources which led him to understand 
that he was destined to be a shaman. More rarely, a man sleeping in his 
tent at night in the ordinary way, received supernatural revelations of power 
and his personal ability in that direction. 

When a man had unexpectedly had his dream by sleeping in the ordi- 
nary way in the lodge, he at once repaired to a tree leaning over the river 
and built a stage over the water. There he slept for seven days. If he 
was a young man, he told his father to come and see him at the end of that 
time and bring him food. Sometimes the father would forget to arri\e at 
the proper time with food and in such cases the young man was invariably 
tinned into a sturgeon. If power was revealed to a youth in his dreams, 
he went to a shaman of his acquaintance, or to his father, if his father was a 
member of the midewin, and made this fact known. He was then instructed 
by this member and as a compensation he was obliged to give practically 
e\erything he had. Young men fasting on the scaffold sometimes overtaxed 
themselves by fasting too long, and there are stories concerning the sad fate 
of youths who had over-estimated their strength and who died or were 
turned into various animals, as in the case of the Sauk and Fox.^ 

Among the Moose Cree, when, a young man was on his scaffold, waiting 
for \isions he could come down e\ery day and go home, although this was 
not done by those of Fort Albany. He, however, fasted and never spoke 
to an\-one for fear the spirits would be driven awa^- and forsake him. 

In the fall of the year, the final ceremonies were held in which the young 
man was initiated to the lowest degree of the midewin. UnUke those of the 
Central Algonkin, these ceremonies were not open to the public view, nor 
was there anyone present except the old shaman and i)ossil)ly a few other 

» Jones, (a). 183-186. 



62 Anthropological Papers American Museum of Natural History. [Vol. IX,. 

members of the society. The ceremonies opened with the singing of songs, 
after which the shaman took his medicine bag which is usually made of 
otterskin, the otter being considered the most powerful of the medicine 
animals, and held it in front of him. Then he began to go about the lodge 
holding the otter in front of him with both hands. At every step, the otter- 
skin, which was held head up at al)out the height of the chest was thrust 
forward. When the shaman approached the novice it was pushed directly 
at the young man until its nose touched him, and as it did so it made a noise. 
The novice immediately fell down and lay unconscious. During this time, 
the medicine power of the otter was passed into his body. When at length, 
he came to, the shaman inquired of him if he understood what the otter 
had said. The no\'ice invariably replied, "No." The shaman answered, 
"I will tell you what the otter said to you. Death is on you, but you will 
be alive again." When the young man had fully recovered he knew as 
much as could possil)ly be taught to him by any human being, because of 
the power of the otter which had been passed into his body while he lay 
unconscious. 

The youth could never accomplish anything more than was revealed 
to him in his dreams, or later by his instructors in the miflewin. Before 
being initiated, he generally tried to see if he could do all the things revealed 
to him in his \-ision. Sometimes the dreams were of feats greater than he 
was able to accomplish, but in most cases he could do everything that had 
been promised him. No one ever told what had l^een revealed during these 
dreams for fear his power would be revoked by the spirits. In some cases, 
the midewin ceremony was held by a shaman who instructed his son, who 
had had a medicine dream. In this case, no one was present at the ceremony 
but the shaman and his son. The office was not hereditary. 

Two degrees of the midewin were known. Among the Eastmain and 
Labrador Cree the first and lowest was called the Kwosapiitcikewin. A 
member of this division was able to procure interviews with the spirits 
for himself and others. Members of either order are generally known to 
the whites in this region as "conjurors," and "miteo," which now seems 
to he the general native term for a shaman of any class. 

A member of the first division wishing to attain the second and higher 
degree, lived and fasted by himself while trying for power. During this 
period, voices spoke to him, and he saw visions. He dared not tell of these 
at home, however, for fear the spirits who had spoken to him would with- 
draw their aid. In asking for power a "conjuror" always knelt with his 
head bent to the ground. 

When the secrets of the second order had been revealed the member 
became a miteo (wizard) and had all the powers of the Kwosapiitcikewin 



1911.] Skinner, The Eastern Cree. 63 

with the additional power to prophesy and to kill his enemies by magic. 
A miteo could also cross rivers or streams without a canoe, for the spirits 
transported him bodily. 

In addition to the fall ceremony, the midewin was sometimes held in the 
spring, as soon as the snow was soft. It was never held in the autumn before 
the first fall of snow. When a 3'oung man had entered the lowest of the four 
degrees, the only way in which he could rise was by having further dreams 
as to his power, which was always entirely restricted by them. He kept the 
skins of such animals as had appeared in his first dreams and promised to be 
protectors to help him. A man might see a great many animals and keep 
all their skins and could send any one of these animals to destroy his enemy. 
Snakes, salamanders, mink and otter, were well known personal guardians. 

The songs used in the various midewin ceremonies were kept on rolls 
of birchbark of different sizes. The ideas were expressed by means of 
geometric signs drawn or scratched upon the bark, closel}^ resembling those 
kept by the Ojibway except that they were less realistic. The contents 
of these rolls were committed to memory by the novice. 

In Petitot, under the title, "Mitewi (the Labour), Bienniel medicine 
ceremony of the Crees," ^ we find the following reference to a ceremony 
which is probably more public and elaborate than those described to us, 
and which is quoted in full: — 

"At the approach of the vernal and autumnal equinoxes, the oldest and most 
powerful jugglers, the Sokaskew convoke all the Crees in the neighborhood to the 
ceremony of the Mitewi, sending by messengers, little presents of tobacco. 

If the tobacco is accepted by a Cree, he renders himself liable by this act to the 
equivalent of a promise to be present at the Mitewi, but it is permissible for any one 
to refuse the tobacco. Nevertheless, very few of the people refuse it for fear of 
arousing the ire of the magicians. 

'He will change us into a bear or a horse,' think they, 'they can kill us at a 
distance or send us who can tell what sickness.' 

For this reason few of the Crees are brave enough to refuse. 

When all of the Crees are gathered at a place designated bj' the delegates, they 
build an oblong and conical house or shed, with an opening at each end. This is the 
Mitewi tent. 

The Cree, nude, painted, and prepared as if for war, enter the Mitewi lodge, 
and place themselves in along the length of the walls, which are elevated on stakes 
to the height of a support. The middle of the lodge is left vacant for the conjurors. 

The medicine men and magicians now enter, Maskikiy-Iyiniwok (magic-men) 
lead by the grand priest or Sokaskew. They carry in their hands the skin of the 
animal which is their totem (fetish, nagwal, or manito) because it is revealed to them 
in a dream that it is to be their guardian and good spirit. 

These skins belong to all kinds of animals, snakes, badgers, wolves, mink, coyotes, 

I Petitot. 477. 



{j4 Anthropological Papers American Museum of Natural History. [Vol. IX, 

buffalo, foxes, lynx, mice, etc. Each skin is embellished with ornaments according 
to Indian taste, and placed on the earth in front of its fortunate possessor. 

This being done, they carry into the council lodge all the medicinal roots and 
herbs which have been plucked and culled by the medicine men during the heart of 
the summer. These are arranged in a single line in order that each conjuror may 
infuse into them the curative or malevolent vu-tues possessed by his totem. 

This is, properly speaking the commencement of the Mitewi or the Judgment of 
the Roots. This judgment is composed of first, the collection of medicine powers, 
and second, awarding this or that root according to the wish of the conjurors. In the 
first case, each magician holding his totem or manitou, the spirit of which haunts 
him, in his hand makes the rounds of the roots chanting and placing on them the 
head of the animal to the accompaniment of contortions and grimaces. 

Each one having made three rounds of the roots, it is the part of the grand priest 
to say such a root has received such a curative power, and such another root such 
another virtue. Some are declared good for the cramps and others for the megrims, 
such a one is only good for the feet, and another for the head, and another for the 
body. Such a root is to be used alone, and such another with one or two others. 

The time, the manner and the method for using are also determined by the 
medicine men and what of their powers they can communicate to their totem or 
animal-god . 

The judgment of the doctors being terminated, they proceed to the initiation of 
neophytes. No Cree not yet initiated may enter the mysteries of the Mitewi. The 
initiation is given for payment and carries with it the obligations of fidelity to the 
laws of magic. 

The novices having been brought into the lodge, they are passed in review, by 
all the jugglers, to the accompaniment of chants, grimaces, and insufflations and 
passes by means of the powerful totems. Each medicine man points towards 
him the head of his genie, and cries 'Wi! wi!' all of a sudden, with one common 
accord they direct them together on the same novice whom they have designated 
in advance, crying 'Wew!' 

This having been done, they are seen to point the invisible arrows of their power- 
ful manitous at the stomach of the novice. Immediately the novice falls to the 
earth without movement, and they cry, 'He is dead!' Sometimes it happens that 
the novice does not perceive that he has been pointed out by the unanimous consent 
of the magicians. Then his companions inform him, telling him, 'You have been 
shot,' and he immediately drops as if dead. 

The initiate being dead, the problem is to resuscitate him. This is the great 
miracle of magic of the science of initiation. The juggler approaches the candidate, 
touches him and makes magnetic passes with his hands and with his totem and 
sacred roots. Then come the songs, struck up with a trembling voice, a voice full of 
emotion and uncertainty, terminating with bellows. They breathe towards the 
heart of the dead man in order to recall him to life. 

Then little by little one sees life reappear in the body of the candidate. The 
invocations are redoubled, the medicine men press their mouths to the body of the 
patient, cup him and draw from the blood, worms, pebbles, nails and other objects. 
In short, life is returning, the dead man yawns, stretches, opens his eyes, which he 
casts with a haggard look over the crowd as if he were astonished and stupified at 
returning to life. Suddenly he cries, ' Why have you called me back to this low world? 
Why have you taken me away from the pleasures of the Earth of Spirits and of the 
celestial hunt?' 



1911.] Skinner, The Eastern Cree. 65 

' What have you seen, oh brother, what have 3-ou seen? ' the people around him 
cry. Then everyone hastens to hear his vision. 

'Ah, my brethi-en,' said one of the initiates in my presence, 'how can mortal lips 
narrate what I have seen? I have seen, yes, I have seen the Great Spirit myself. 
I entered his tent, a magnificent mansion full of servants and e.xceUent things. As 
soon as he saw me, he cried, 'Go away, I do not want you here you ragged beggar.' 
'No,' I answered him, I shall not depart. 'Go away, I tell you,' cried the Great 
JNIanitou, 'return to the earth which 3'ou have left before your time and without my 
command.' 'No,' I replied again, 'it is well to stay here, and here I shall remain.' 
'Oh, you don't want to go away,' he cried, 'well you will see.' Saying this he loosened 
his dogs at me, his terrible dogs. What dogs, my friends I Animals as large as a 
pine tree and armed with long sharp teeth like the big knives of the Yankees of the 
south. Then when I saw the dogs of Kitchi-Manito I betook myself to flight. This 
is how I came back to earth.' 

After the initiate has spoken, he returns to the ranks of the old men, who con- 
gratulate him and crowd about him. After the judgment of the roots and the 
initiation, the sacrifice takes place. 

White dogs are prepared, bled, skinned and cut into pieces. With their blood 
are tied the four posts supporting the great lodge of the Mitewi and the rest is spread 
on the ground around this lodge. The white dog or dogs are then roasted and 
quartered without breaking a single one of their bones, about which they are very 
careful. Then the entire assemblage satisfies their hunger in honor of the Great 
Spirit. Then there follow chants, dances, and orgies until the morning of the next 
day. This ceremony is repeated twice as I have already said, in the vernal and 
autumnal equinoxes. "^ 

WTiile Petitot does not definitely state in what locality his observations 
were made, beyond sa^nng that they were made on the lower Saskatchewan, 
which would bring them within the Woodlands, from his description it 
appears that the region in question was one where Ojibway influence was 
more strongly in evidence than where the writer has made his obse^^•ations. 
The farther we recede from the Ojibway boundaries, especially to the East 
the midewin seems to lose strength and importance in Cree territory. 
It may even have been wanting among the Cree before they began their 
westward migrations and came in contact with the Ojibway. The midewin 
has long fallen into disuse and the notes here presented represent all that 
can be obtained at present, the mere vague and fragmentary memories of 
the oldest men. 

The Cree of Fort Albany admit that their midewin was closely related 
to that of the Ojil)way and that the}^ exchanged medicine and secrets with 
them. The Ojibway frequently came and lived among the Cree, fasting 
and dreaming in order that they might join the Cree branch of the midewin. 
The Cree in turn went through the same ceremony with the Ojibway. 



1 Petitot, 477-483. 



(')() A lilhroiioliigicdl I'lifcrs A nii-ricau Museum of ?\(ilural History, [^'ol. IX, 

A few people liad iiiiilevolent powers rexealed to them diirini;' their dreams 
and sueh were able to eliange tlieiiisel\es into any animals at will. 

( 'arver, referring to the ( 'ree in the A'icinity of Lake Winnipeg, describes 
the following method employed hy a shaman to look into the future and 
foretell the arrival of a party of traders who were anxiously awaited. 

'"Tlie following evening was fixed \ipon foi' this sj)iritiial conference. When 
everv thing had been proi)erly prepared, the king came to me and led nie to a capa- 
cious tent, the covering of which was drawn up, so as to render what was transacting 
within visible to those who stood without. We found the tent surrounded by a 
great number of the Indians, but we readily gained admission, and seated ourselves 
on skins laid on the ground for the pmpose. 

In the centre I observed that there was a place of an oblong shape, which was 
composed of stakes stuck in the ground with intervals between, so as to form a kind 
,of chest or coffin, large enough to contain the body of a man. These were of middle 
size, and placed at .such a distance from each other, that whatever lay within them 
was readily to be discerned. The tent was perfectly illuminated b}' a great number 
of torches made of splinters cut from the pine or birch tree, which the Indians held 
in their hands. 

In a few minutes the priest entered; when an amazing lai'ge elk's skin being 
spreatl on the ground just at my feet, he laid himself down upon it, after having 
stri))t himself of every garment except that which he wore close about his middle. 
Being now prostrate on his back, he finst laid hold of one side of the skin, and folded 
it over him, and then the other; leaving only his head uncovered. This was no 
sooner done, than two of the young men who stood b}'. took about forty yards of 
strong cord, made also of an elk's hide, and rolled tight round his body, so that he was 
completely swathed within the skin. Being thus bound up like au Egyptian Mununy, 
one took him by the heels, and the other by the head, and lifted him over the pales 
into the inclosure. I could also now discern him as plain as I had hitherto done, and 
I took care not to turn my eyes a moment from the object before me, that I might 
the more readily detect the artifice; for such I doubted not br.t that it would turn 
out to be. 

The priest had not Iain in this situation more than a few seconds, when he began 
to mutter. This he continued to do for some time, and then bj' degrees grew louder 
and louder, till at length he spoke articulately; however what he uttered was in such 
a mixed jargon of the Chipewaw, Ottawaw, and Killistinoe languages, that I could 
understand but verj' little of it. Having continued in this tone for a considerable 
while, he at last exerted his voice to its utmost pitch, sometimes raving and some- 
times praying, till he had worked himself into such an agitation, that he foamed at 
his mouth. 

After having remained near three quarters of an hour in the place, and continued 
his vociferation with unabated vigor, he seemed to be quite exhausted, and remained 
speechless. But in an instant he sprung upon his feet, notwithstanding at the time 
he was put in, it appeared impossible for him to move either his legs or arms, and 
shaking off his covering, as quick as if the bands with which it had been bound were 
burned asunder, he began to address those who stood around, in a firm and audible 
voice. 'My Brothers,' said he, 'the Great Spirit has deigned to hold a Talk with 
his servant at niv caiiu-st leqtiest. He has not, indeed, loid nie when tiie i)er.-<ons 



1911.] Skiittter, The Eiislcni Cree.' 67 

we oxix'ci will he here, hut toiuori-ow, soon nftcr the sun has rcaclird bis highest 
point in tlic h('a\'('ns, a canoe will ari'ivc, and the pcojjlc in that will inform ns wlien 
the traders will come.' Having said this, he stepped out of the inelosiire, and after 
he had put on his robes, dismissed the as.sembly." ^ 

" \\v\\ conjuriiiii " is pcrforiiicd hy tlie initeo against his rivals or ciieiiiies. 
A (Ireaiii iid'orins him what course to take. Sometimes a hird or animal is 
captured and imhiied witii malevolent power. Jt is sent to the intended 
victim and strikes or falls upon him, killing him. If however, hi.s power 
is stronger than that of the .sender, he sometimes reco\ers, and men have 
even been known to send l)ack the deadly messengers of their enemies with 
fatal effect. 

Sometimes a miteo wishing to kill a ri\al, lies on his back, apparently 
dead, but in reality in a trance. While in this condition his spirit leaves 
him and travels the distance separating him from his intended victim and 
kills him by aid of magic. If, however, as has been known to happen, the 
other man's power is the greater, the .spirit of the miteo may be defeated and 
killed. In .such an instance the conjuror never recovers from his trance. 
Sometim(>s noted rival miteos will build conjuring houses, and proceed to 
battle with e'ach other, the man whose influence with the spirits is the 
stronger or who has the most mysterious power, ne\er fails to vanquish 
the other. 

( onjtiring is carried on for hunting, war-like piu'po.ses, love-making, 
and to see into the futin-e for the purpose of prophesying. The influence 
of the conjuror was much greater than that of the chief, and e\illy dispo.sed 
conjurors often held an entire conuumiity in terror, no one daring to refuse 
their demands. 

To .secure success in himting, conjuring is carried on in the following 
manner: — The conjm-or retires to a secluded spot, and there builds a dome- 
.shaped "conjuring house" (p. 14). The Indian hunters gather at least 
twenty-fi\e feet away from the sjjot forming a circle aroimd the lodge 
through which no one is allowed to pass. The conjiu'or enters and com- 
mences to sing in order to inxoke the spirits. The tent shakes violently, 
the wind i)lows, and the xoices of the spirits are heard from the top of the 
liouse and the cries of birds and beasts are plainly audible. 

The conjuror is heard to ask the spirits concerning the success of the 
hunt, and their Noices rv])\y from t\\v top of the lodge. The result of the 
lumt always depends on the answers given. The drtuu is nev(>r used in a 
conjm'ing house. 

A white man residing at Ivistmain Kix'er Fort informed the writer that 

' Carver, 7S. 



68 Anthropological Papers American Museum of Natural History, [^'ol. IX, 

on one occasion, wishing to see just how the shaking of the lodge and the 
other mystical performances were accomplished, suddenly broke through 
the Indian lines, and running to the tent, lifted up a flap and there found the 
conjuror, his feet braced against one side of the tent, off the ground, with 
his hands firmly grasping the other side of the structure, shaking it violently 
and imitating the calls of the animals and the spirit voices. 

In conjuring for a ^•ictory in war, a dance, known as the "conjuror's 
dance," was g•i^'en. Conjuring is also done for the purpose of gaining 
mastery over the other sex, either individually or in general. Love charms 
or medicines are also used for this purpose. These, however, are personal 
dream revelations. Some magic object is sometimes held in the hand, 
and brought into contact with the person of the woman desired, who cannot 
resist the holder. 

The Rev. Dr. Robert Rennison, the Church of England missionary at 
Moose Factory informed the writer of a certain famous little greenish stone 
held by some of the Indians he had known. It had been in one family for a 
long time, and had a very powerful influence over women. If carried by a 
young man any girl to whom he stopped to talk would find him irresistible 
through its influence. 

Hunting Customs. As the Cree live in constant fear of starvation, and of 
the unseen forces of nature, their daily life is one long round of sacrifice. 
Tobacco is always thrown in the fire before a feast, to propitiate the spirits 
in general, and when reaching a rapid the Cree voyageurs invariably cast 
tobacco into it to conciliate the resident manitou or demon, half woman 
and half fish. 

To the Eastern Cree mind every animal has a spirit whose hixor must be 
acquired or it will exert its influence to prevent its species from being taken 
by Indian hunters.^ On this account the bones of the beaver are carefully 
cleaned and cast into the running water whence they came in order that 
the dogs may not get them. The heads of geese and ducks, the teeth of 
moose and caribou, and the claws and chins of the bear are saved. They 
form not only an offering to the spirit of the animal from which they were 
taken, but serve as talismen for the owners, and trophies or tallies of the 
chase as well. The skin of every animal taken is decorated with vermilion 
stripes and dots, never omitting the mystic series of five dots, the secret 
meaning of which could not be obtained (Fig. 35). Like many other North 
American tribes, the Eastern Cree consider that of all animals, the most 
powerful and important is the bear, concerning whom the following series 
of customs has originated. 

1 According to Dr. F. G. Speck, the Micmac, Montagnais, and Naskapi still believe 
animals will be reborn if the proper taboos are observed. This is no doubt also the case 
with the Cree. 




1911.] Skinner, The Eastern Cree. 69 

If a hunter, while in the forest, comes upon a bear and wishes to slay 
him, he first approaches and apologizes, explaining that nothing but lack of 
food drives him to kill it, and begging that the bear will not be offended at 
him, nor permit the spirits of other bears to be angry. On killing the bear, 
he cuts off the middle toe and claw of the right fore foot and returns with it 
to his camp. ^Yhen he arrives he first smokes for some time, saying nothing 
of what he has done, but meanwhile mentally deciding whom he shall ask 
to take charge of, bring in, and butcher the carcass. 
Usually, if he is a married man, the person chosen 
is the wife of the hunter. When the proper time, 
perhaps an hour, has elapsed, he gives the announc- 
ing claw to the person whom he has picked out, and 
states where the bear may be found. The recipient 
of the claw understands what is required, and, ask- . ^'^- f^ (50-7034). A 

^ ' ' bear s claw Trophy. 

ing no further questions, takes a companion, goes 

out, and brings in the carcass. The announcing claw is wrapped in cloth, 
beaded, or painted, or both, and kept as a memento of the occasion 
(Fig. 36). 

In case two or more men kill a bear, it is laid out on its back in their 
canoe, and carefully covered. When the hunters approach their camp or 
Post, the burden is seen from afar, and all the Indians crowd the river bank 
with cries of congratulation. When the canoe grates on the beach, it is 
at once surrounded by the small boys, who run down and draw back the 
blanket or covering enough to expose the bear's head, or at least, its teeth. 
It is then carried up and laid out, like a man, in front of its slayer's wigwam. 
After the bear has been laid out, and tobacco placed on his teeth or in his 
mouth, the hunter and the chief men present smoke over it. 

Nowadays when the bear is brought in, it is laid out upon a new blanket 
purchased from the Hudson's Bay Company for the occasion. While the 
ceremony is going on, if it must be mentioned, the bear must be called 
Kawi'piitc mi'tcEm (black food). Pointing with the finger at the carcass 
during this ceremony is strictly tabooed. 

After the hunter and chief men have smoked, the bear is butchered, and 
the flesh distributed to all the camp. Certain parts of the bear's flesh are 
at once burnt ("given to its spirit to eat"), including a small piece of its 
heart. The rest of the heart is at once eaten by the slayer, in order that 
he may acquire the cunning and courage of his victim. 

Women are not allowed to eat of the bear's head or paws, nor men of 
his rump. The bones are never given away, unless the bear's flesh is served 
as a feast in the lodge of the slayer. In any event, they are carefully 
cleansed, saved, and hung up, or placed on a scaffold where the dogs cannot 



"0 



Aiilliropolof/ic/il Papers Atuermin Museum of Xaliinil History. [Vol. IX, 



reach them. If wild animals, other tlian dogs, reach and devour them, no 
harm is done. 

The skull of the bear is cleaned, and the brains renio\ed through an 
opening made by enlarging the foramen magnum. It is dried, and painted 
with A'ermilion (Fig. 37), and is placed in a safe place (now generally on a 





Fig. 37 (.50-7028). Bears' Skulls with Ccremoniid Markings. 



shelf in the Hudson's Bay Company's stort', if the Indians are at a Post) 
and kept from three to six months, when it is secretly taken by its owners 
and hung up on a tree in the forest. 

Formerly, the Cree of Moose Fort, instead of smoking ()\-er the carcass of 
a dead bear, like those of the Eastmain, went through the following cere- 
mony : — 



1911.] Sl:inner, The Eadern Cree. tl 

The head of tlie hear was first cut off and cooked, after whicli the men 
and hoys of the camp sat down in a circle ahout it. A large stone pipe was 
laid beside the head and a plug of tobacco placed upon it. Tlien the man 
who had killed the bear arose from his place in the circle and filled the pipe 
with the tobacco, after which it was lighted and passed about the circle 
from left to right, the slayer smoking first. Each person had the alternative 
of smoking the pipe for several moments or merely taking a single puff 
before passing it on. After this, the bear's head was passed about and 
everyone stro\'e to l)ite out a piece of its flesh without touching it with his 
hands. ^ The same ceremony was sometimes also gone through after the 
slaying of a caribou. 

Another bear ceremony obser\'ed by the ^loose Cree was as follows: — 
The bear's intestines were remox'ed, slightly cooked and smoked, after the 
passing of the head. They were then coiled up on a plate and passed about 
the circle by the slayer and offered to all the men present, each of whom bit 
off a piece. Women were allowed to be present at this part of the ceremony 
but were not allowed to partake of the meat. This ceremony was quite 
recently observed. 

The Cree of Rupert's House and Eastmain River Fort, taboo pointing 
at a bear with the finger e\'en if it is a live bear in the woods, for if this is 
done, the bear would turn and rim away, even if he did not see the offender, 
for his medicine woidd warn him of the approach of danger. At the feast, 
after the slaying of a bear, a certain amount of food is always set before 
each guest, who is obliged to finish it at one sitting. If, howe\'er, he can- 
not eat it all at once, he is privileged to leave it at the house of the gi\'er of 
the feast until the next night, when he must finish it. The Moose and 
Albany Cree do not now observe the majority of the bear customs, nor have 
they for many years. Those at Albany have forgotten their significance. 

It is permissible to speak of a bear as Muskwa (the "angry one" or 
"wrangler") in his absence only, unless one wishes to anger him, or as an 
expression of reproof. It must never be used before his carcass. If a 
hunter comes upon a bear in the woods, and is obliged to speak of him, he 
may call him Kawl'patc mItcEm (black meat, or food) because this is the 
bear's proper name, and he will not be offended or frightened by it. This 
name may also be used before the dead body. Under the same circum- 
stances as abo\e, or when it is not desirable to let him know that he is being 
spoken of, he may be called Tclsheak (old porcupine) because he will not 



I The writer saw an almost identical ceremony of passing the bear's head during a, 
midnight ceremony of the Little Waters, or Secret Medicine Society, of the Seneca Iroquois 
on the Cattaraugus Reserve, New York. This time a bear's head was not obtainable, and a 
chunlv of salt pork was used. 



Anthropological Papers American Museum of Natural History. [Yoi. IX, 



know who is being talked about. When making fun of a bear, or joking 
about him, he may be called Wakiush (crooked tail). This name must 
never l)e used before the carcass, but TukwaiakEn (short tail) may be used. 
PisEsu or Pisistciu (resembling a cat, or lynx) is another term applied to 
the bear to avoid calling him by his real name. Waklu may be another 
form of Wakiush and Matsue may be a variant of Muskwa. 

The skin of the bear is dried, but never tanned and painted. The skin 
of the imder-lip or chin is sacred, and with a piece of bone from the tongue 
is sa\'ed. The bone is placed in a little pouch or bag, and fastened to the 
point of the chin on the inside. The skin is folded (sometimes being first 
painted with vermilion) and sewed together (Fig. 38). The edges of the 
skin and of the pouch containing the tongue bone are beaded. At East- 
main River Fort, the skin is folded, but not fastened, so that the little bag 
cannot be seen, as at Rupert's House. These chins serve as charms, and 
as tallies or hunting trophies. A string of these which was perhaps used as a 
necklace (Fig. 38) was collected at Eastmain Ri\er Fort. Single claws are 

also kept as trophies, the bony part being re- 
jected and the horny nail saved, often a number 
are fitted together one inside of the other to 
form a ring (Fig. 39). A skinning tool of the 
thigh bone of a young bear, and a worked 
scapula, from the same animal, perhaps in- 
tended for a spoon, were obtained at Rupert's 
House and the writer was informed that these 
were kept as charms, and never used. A 
bear's foetus skin, obtained at the same Post 
was kept for the same reason. 

Anciently, the Eastern Cree never used the 





Fig. 38. 



Fig. 38 (50-7041). 
Fig. 39 (50-7031). 



Fig. 39. 

A String of Bearskin Cliarms 
A Ring of Bear Claws. 



1911.] Skinner, The Eastern Cree. 73 

bow and arrow in taking the bear, as they did not consider these weapons 
strong enough. Bears were invariably hunted with the war club and knife, 
especially in winter, when their hibernating dens might be found. The 
hunter always endeavored to strike the bear a fatal blow on the head with 
his club, or approached at still closer quarters, to stab him. Dogs were used 
to worry the bear and the Indians affirm that when standing on his hind 
legs neither the polar nor black bear can turn well on the right side, making 
it comparatively easy for an agile man to run in closely and stab it to the 
heart. 

Bears are supposed, as will be seen, to understand everything said to 
them. One man whom we saw at Eastmain River Fort in 1908 was horribly 
scarred and mangled by a black bear which he had attacked and wounded, 
but which finally set him free when he pleaded with it for mercy. A " bear 
dance" was formerly held but no information could be obtained (p. 40) 
concerning it, other than a meager description. 

The carcass of the first caribou killed by any member of the band, is 
skinned, with the exception of the head. The breast and lower part of the 
throat including the tongue are cut off in one piece. The head is then 
singed, cut off the body, and boiled together with the flesh of the neck and 
throat. The slayer of the animal takes the body from the fire and puts the 
flesh into a new kettle, which he passes around the circle to every man and 
boy present. Women may not partake of the food. Each man tries to 
eat as much as he can. 

^Mien a caribou is killed, its death is sometimes announced by bringing 
in a tuft of its hair, or its right fore leg, cut off at the knee. No other 
ceremony accompanies this act, however. Tanned caribou skins invariably 
have the tail, or a tuft of hair from it left upon them; they are also painted 
symbolically in vermilion. Painting with esoteric meaning also occurs on 
the inside of the caribou skin parkas, or coats. A "deer dance" was held 
but no information can now be obtained coneerning it. 

The heads of ducks and geese are stuffed, preser\'ed, and decorated with 
beads, and kept to propitiate the spirits of the birds and as charms and 
trophies (Fig. 40). A piece of the skin of the loon's neck is often attached 
to the rifle of a hunter as a luck charm. The first fish caught in the spring 
are burnt as an offering to the so\'ereign spirit or manitou of the fish. 

When camping together, a band of Eastern Cree will sometimes take a 
pole, strip it of its bark and place it up right before the camp. From this, 
out of reach of the dogs, are hung the skulls of the l)ear, beaver, otter, and 
loon, to honor them, and to proclaim to the world to what animals the 
hunters are indebted for their lives. The whites of the James Bay region 
call the.se ceremonial, or sacrificial posts, "Indian flagpoles". 



74 • Anthropological Papers American Museum of Natural History. [Vol. IX, 




Fig. 40 (50-7039, 703S, 7058). A Series of hunting Charms. 



1911.] Skiniirr. The luislfrn Crec. 75 

A in;m desirinfi- success in fishini;- or luintinu \\atcr ;iiiiiii;ils souictimes 
biiilcis a scaffold of poles, and after he has fasted foi- a wliile lie ascends the 
scaffold at nijilit, praying and fasting until lie lias a dream in which he may 
be told how to take the various denizens of the water. Jn the ca.se of 
hunting-medicine an e\il spirit appears and gives the hunter a magic draught 
which imbues him with the power to attract the beasts to his traps. These 
two usages were obtained among the Cree of Moose F'actory and may also 
be found among the Rupert's House Indians, although they were not heard 
of there by the writer. If a hunter dreams of seeing or killing any animal, 
when he wakes up he at once sings a song, for luck, concerning his dream and 
about the animal which appeared to him, for luck. A young man ha\'ing 
killed any large animal for the first time sits up all night singing, drumming, 
and praying A feast is gi\en in his honor. This is repeated whene\'er 
he slays any new species of big game for the first time. 

Franklin says of the Cree of C'miiberland House, " ^lany of the Creek 
(sic) hunters are careful to pre\ent a woman from partaking of the head of 
a moose-deer, less it should spoil their future hunts, and for the .same reason 
they avoid bringing it up to a fort, fearing less the white people should give 
the bones to the dogs." ^ 

While it is true that the original reasons for which most of these bear 
ceremonies and sacrifices were offered by the Eastern Cree are now lost, 
the Northern Saulteaux have preser\ed certain customs connected with 
the bear and moreo\er gi\e reasons for tlie sacrifices which they otter. 
According to the Saulteaux all bear kind are controlled l)y a great chief, 
a bear of extraordinary size with remarkable supernatural powers. This 
"bear manitou" controls the destiny of all the species, and it is through 
his will that they wander about the earth. If so inclined, the "l)ear mani- 
tou" may .send any one of his subjects to any place that he wills, and it is 
throvigh him alone that a bear is ever caught in an Indian trap or slain by 
an Indian. Therefore, the sacrifices and honors accorded to the bear by 
the Ojibway ha\'e a dual reason: first, through this means the slain bear 
is himself honored, and secondly, the "bear manitou" is pleased and takes 
pains to see that the Indian thus according him his due is rewarded by 
future succe.s.sful hunts. Some kindred reason no doubt actuates the 
Eastern Cree when he smokes tobacco over the l)ody of tlie bear or saves 
the skin of the bear's chin. From the proximity of most of the Eastern 
Cree to the Northern Saulteaux, and the known interchange of ideas and 
culture, one would imagine that the.se rea.sons at former times obtained in 
both localities. 

1 Franklin. 64. 



7t» Aidhropoloijiail Papers American Museum of Natural History. [Vol. IX^ 

The Indians l)elie\e that all animals are speaking and thinking beings, 
in many ways not one whit less intelligent than human beings. The reason 
that they are less successful in life is that they are unfortunate, "their 
metlieine is not as strong." The reason that the Indian is able to prey 
upon them is that he is more fortunate, not more intelligent. In some cases, 
however, certain animals have a greater supernatural ability than the Indian. 
This is particularly true of the bear who is considered more intelligent and 
to have greater medicine powers in many ways than mankind. He walks 
iil)()ii liis hind legs like a man, and displays manlike characteristics. In fact, 
some tribes regard the bear as an unfortimate man. For this reason, much 
attention is paid to him. He is also noted for his bravery, and many tribes 
are known to esteem a necklace of bear's claws, the trophy acquired by a man 
who has slain a l)ear, above the human scalp. In this connection, the writer 
has noted special honors accorded the bear among the Cree, Ojibway,. 
Menomini, Seneca, Delaware, Assiniboine,^ and others. 



DOCTORS AND MEDICINES. 

Considerable general knowledge of medicines, herbs, and simples is in 
the possession of the ordinary' people. There are, however, regular physi- 
cians, each of whom has to possess some degree of magic power. Among 
the Eastern Cree, doctors never suck wounds with bone tubes, as among 
some Algonkin tribes. They must always be paid when a cure is effected. 
The diagnosis, as far as observed by the writer, generally consists of a purely 
superficial examination. The Eastern Cree are expert botanists and even 
recognize many obscure plants. They claim to be very well conversant 
with their curative properties. Unfortunately, owing to the lack of oppor- 
tunity for collection and identification, the following list of medicinal 
plants is very incomplete and indefinite in regard to classification.^ It is 
given here merely to show in a small part the wide range of medicinal plant 
usage among the Eastern Cree. 

Kakigebilk, "country tea"; for retention of urine. 

"blackberry willow root "; as an emetic. 

\MsegipKk, "bitter leaf"; externally, used for strains, blistering, as a 
sticking plaster and sometimes small quantities taken internally. 



' Lowie, .56. 

• For the few identiflcations here made and in fact for all those used here and elsewhere 
in this paper, the writer is indebted to Mr. Waldron De Witt Miller of the Department of 
OrnilholoKy <>f tliis Museum. 



1911.] Skinner, The Eastern Cree. 77 

Watcinakun, juniper bark, Juniper communis; as a poultice to draw out 
pain. 

Oskiskkatik, "English" pine, jnnus sp. (?); used for heating wounds. 
INIinahik, spruce, Picea sp. (?); boiled or beaten. Used as a plaster on 
wounds, kept there until it comes off of itself. 

llilatchitipityu, balsam spruce; gum used for cuts. 
Atamisklu, pinus, all species; pitch used to heal cuts. 
Muscmninanatik, mountain ash; now and again as a tonic, upper and 
■outer bark discarded, inner bark boiled. 

, black willow; roots boiled as an ? 

, red willow ; bark boiled for an emetic. 

, castoreum, used to heal cuts and wounds. 

For constipation, water to which fish grease has been added is given as 
an enema bj- means of a syringe made of bladder with a tubular bone 
mouthpiece. This is placed in the rectum and the water injected l)^' pressing 
the bladder.^ 

According to Mackenzie: — 

"These people are, in general, subject to few disorders. The lues venerea, 
however, is a common complaint, but cured by the application of simples, with 
whose virtues they appear to be well acquainted. They are also subject to fluxes, 
and pains in the breast, which some have attributed to the very cold and keen air 
which they inhale; but I should imagine that these complaints must frequently 
proceed from their immoderate indulgence in fat meat at their feasts, particularly 
when they have been preceded by long fastings." ^ 

Again he says : — 

"These people know the medicinal virtues of many herbs and simples, and apply 
the roots of plants and the bark of trees with success. But the conjiuors, who 
monopolize the medical science, find it necessary to blend mystery with their- art, 
and do not communicate their knowledge. Their materia medica they administer 
in the form of purges or clysters; but the remedies and surgical operations are 
supposed to derive much of their effect from magic incantation. When a blister 
rises in the foot from the frost, the chaffing of the shoe, etc., they immediately open 
it, and apply the heated blade of a knife to the part, which painful as it may be, is 
found to be efficacious. A sharp flint serves them as a lancet for letting blood, as 
well as for scarification in bruises and swellings. For sprains, the dung of an animal 
just killed is considered as the best remedy. They are very fond of European medi- 
cines, though they are ignorant of their application : and those articles form a con- 
siderable part of the European traffic with them." ' 

Doctors also obtained medicines in the following manYier: — Receptacles 
of several different sizes were hung outside in the exening. The shaman 



1 Heame, 190. 

2 Mackenzie, 66. 

3 Mackenzie, 74. 



78 Aiithni/jologirdl Papers A iiwriran Miiscuin of Ndtiintl History. [Vol. IX, 

tlien rctunu'd to liis lodiic and heat the dniiii all night singing- and praying. 
In the morning, he sent someone to secure the receptacles which were found 
to he full of different kinds of medicine, whereas they had l)een empty. 
Each of these liad a distinct use. Such medicines were either liquid or 
solid. l)iit if dry medicines alone Mere desired, hirchhark folders were hung- 
up. The shaman alone knew the use of his medicines and no one else 
could l)c .successful with them. With these magic medicines even amputa- 
tions and injuries could he ciu'ed. 

No attempt is made to cure or attend the insane. As an idiot is popu- 
larly supposed to he possessed of an e\il spirit, the unfortunate wi'etch is 
usually killed. To this day such an execution usually takes the form of 
burning at the stake. 



WAR CUSTOMS. 

According to our informants, in olden times every warrior had special 
garments, worn only in time of battle. The war cap, or bonnet, was a 
close-fitting skull cap of l)uck.skin, witli a standing ridge of larger feathers 
placed close together and running across the crown from forehead to back. 
Sometimes a band of .skin was bound around the liead and on this plumes 
were fastened, chaplet \\ise. War paint was not used. Howe\er, war 
medicine re\'ea.led in dreams was rubbed o\er the body. The weapons 
were a ball-headed war club with a stone set in it, the spear and the bow 
and arrows. The arrows were made of iron willow, and tipped with bone; 
the short sinew-backed bow of juniper or tamarack. The war spear was 
extensively used. It had a bone point and a smooth handle with a knob at 
the end so that it could not slij) out of the hand when in service. 

Armor was made of skin drawn over wood, thick l)ark or hard leather 
which rested ne.xt to the skin of the wearer. The outside was inflated by 
blowing, making a kind of pneumatic cushion. Shields were not carried 
as e\'ery warrior was taught to dodge arrows. If a man carried a spear 
he could knock aside the arrows with that. 

The war dance and conjuring dance, were always gi\en before going 
into battle (p. 40). Feasts for success Mere sometimes made, the efficacy 
of these depending upon the guests devouring everything that was set before 
them. Unlike the Northern Saulteaux, the Eastern Cree did not change 
their names prior to going into battle. The w^ar cry (SaskM-eo) M'as some- 
times given at the order of the chief, mIio cried, "Siiskwek!" (Give the 
Mar cry.) ^Var cries are still given Mhen shooting rapids. Scalping Mas 



1911.) Skinner, The Eastern Cree. 79 

carried on, and in the old wars against the Eskimo, it was customary for 
the victor to eat a piece of fat cut from the thigh of the slain enemy. This 
has been done recently, for the fathers of some middle-aged hunters met at 
Moose Factory are credited with the experience. Famous persons, when 
captured, were sometimes tied to a stake, cut up piecemeal while alive, 
l)oiIed and eaten before their own eyes. 

If the sacred war bundle of the Central tribes is or was known to the 
Cree, no traces of its use coidd be imearthed, yet a certain correspondence 
of ideas and practices was apparent. 

The people against whom the Eastern Cree made war were the Eskimo 
and some of the neighboring Algonkin. They are still desperately afraid 
of the Iroquois (Xotohoweo) who pursuefl them to their most northern 
boundaries. They were always on terms of great friendship with the 
Saulteau x ( )j i b way . 

While most prayers were ottered silently, a man who felt that he was 
losing his power during battle would stand and pray aloud to the sun as 
follows: — 

tciya' ni manitoum 

you my manitoU: my 

kaspe mutatam tapoena 

that I trusted to are you 

kika wa' yl tcihen ^ 

really going to decei\'e me? 
The war song which was given liefore and during liattle, begged for 
power to go against the enemy as swiftly as the bird flies, and begged that 
the Sim would help, and not deceive, the supplicant. Here a certain 
resemblance to the beliefs of the central tribes may be observed, for these 
war songs plead for the same powers to whom the southern tribes appealed, 
and which they received through their palladiums, the war l)undles. The 
sun too, is almost universally recognized in the Woodlands, as the chief 
war god. 

To hark bac-k to earlier times, Mackenzie informs us that: — 

■'Many and various are tlie motives which induce a .savage to engage in war. 
To prove his courage, or to revenge the death of his relations, or some of his tribe, 
b}' the massacre of an enemy. If the tribe feel themselves called upon to go to war, 
the elders convene the people, in order to know the general opinion. If it be for war, 
the chief pubHshes liis intention to smoke in the stem at a certain period, to whicli 
solemnity, meditation and fasting are required as preparatory ceremonials. When 
the people are thus assembled, and tlie meeting sanctified b,y the customs of smoking, 
the chief enlarges on the causes which have calletl them together, and the necessity 

' Rupert's House dialect. 



80 Anthropological Papers American Museum of Natural History. [Vol. IX, 

of the measures proposed on the occasion. He then myites those who are wilhng 
to follow him, to smoke out of the sacred stem, which is considered as the token of 
enrollment; and if it should be the general opinion, that assistance is necessary, 
others are invited, with great formality, to join them. Every individual who attends 
these meetings brings something with him as a token of his warlike intention, or as 
an object of sacrifice, which, when the assembly dissolves, is suspended from poles 
near the place of covmcil." ^ 



MORTUARY CUSTOMS. 

When at the Posts, the modern Cree Indians bury then* dead according 
to the ceremonies of the Church of England. In the "bush" they follow 
this method as nearly as possible; but, of course, without the burial service. 
Coffins of wood are constructed and the grave closely surrounded by a 
fence, more for appearance than for protection against wild animals. Head- 
stones, or rather boards, are often set up. 

In the old days, so the Indians say, the body was laid out straight in the 
grave and not flexed, as was so universal a custom among most of the 
Algonkin peoples. It was wrapped in birch or pine bark, and, if a man, 
skulls and l)ones of the animals the hunter used to kill were put nearby. 
Persons never got into a grave while digging it, only taking out as much 
earth as they could reach, for if any one went into the grave it was thought 
that he would die in a very short time. The belongings of the deceased 
were laid upon the grave and not in it, as common farther to the south. 
After a week or two people generally took the articles left at the grave 
with the exception of the bow and arrows, if the grave was that of a man. 
Custom decreed that these might never be used by any other person. It 
was customary for the oldest man in the band to watch over the grave 
for two or three days in order that the spirit of the departed might not return 
and take away any one else. Sometimes, for the first three nights, the wig- 
wam was entirely surrounded by fish nets stretched on poles, to form a 
barrier to prevent the spirit from returning. 

From Mackenzie we learn that the Cree of his time had different prac- 
tices than those now observed: — 

"The funeral rites begin, like all other solemn ceremonials, with smoking, and 
are concluded by a feast. The body is dressed in the best habiliments possessed by 
the deceased, or his relations, and is then deposited in a grave, lined with branches: 

1 Mackenzie, 69. 



1911.] Skinner, The Eastern Cree. 81 

some domestic utensils are placed on it, and a kind of canopy erected over it. During 
this ceremony, great lamentations are made, and if the departed person is very much 
regretted the near relations cut off their hair, pierce the fleshy part of their thighs 
and arms with arrows, knives, etc., and blacken their faces with charcoal. If they 
have distinguished themselves in war, they are sometimes laid on a kind of scaffolding; 
and I have been informed that women, as in the East, have been known to sa(!rifice 
themselves to the manes of their husbands. The whole of the property belonging 
to the departed person is destroyed, and the relations take in exchange for wearing 
apparel, any rags that will cover their nakedness. The feast bestowed on the occa- 
sion, which is, or at least used to be, repeated annually, is accompanied with eulogiums 
on the deceased, and without any acts of ferocity. On the tomb are carved or painted 
the symbols of his tribe, which are taken from the different animals of the country. "^ 

Mackenzie also states : — 

"Among theh- various superstitions, they believe that the vapor which is seen 
to hover over moist and swampy places, is the spirit of some person lately dead. 
They also fancy another spirit which appears, in the shape of a man, upon the trees 
near the lodge of a person deceased, whose property has not been interred with them. 
He is represented as bearing a gun in his hand, and it is believed that he does not 
return to his rest, till the property that has been withheld from the grave has been 
sacrificed to it." ^ 



SOME NOTES ON FOLKLORE. 

Owing to the great mortality among the older people, during the influenza 
epidemic which scourged northern Quebec, Ontario, and Keewatin during 
190S-9, it is now very hard to find anyone able to relate the myths and 
legends of the Eastern Cree. The younger generation usually remembers 
only fragments of the stories, and they object strongly to relating them in 
this form. 

There are, as is customary among other Algonkin tribes, fixed titles 
for each story. These titles are usually chosen from the name of one of 
the characters, and the hero is by no means always selected. The custom 
of never telling a story until after the first frost, has been discontinued 
lately. 

Like their kindred, the Ojibway and Menomini, the Cree used to prefer 
long stories, crowding numy incidents into one tale. In this respect they 
difl^er from the Sauk and Fox, who delight in short succinct narratives; but 



1 Mackenzie, 68. 

2 Mackenzie, 74. 



82 Anthropological Papers American Museum of Natural History. [Vol. IX, 

the tendency of the younger Cree is to break up their legends into short 
anecdotes.^ 

All along the west coast of James and Hudson's Bays, Wisakatcak plays 
a prominent part as the culture hero and trickster, but the cycle seems to 
be unknown to the Eastmain and Labrador Cree, at least all inquiries made 
among them in 1908 proved barren. As ipight be expected, some of the 
Cree who are cognizant of Ojibway folklore identify Wisakatcak with 
Nanabozo. On the other hand, those Saulteaux living in pi-oximity to the 
Cree have incorporated the name of Wisakatcak in the form of WisEketcak. 
While many of the adventures of Wisakatcak are ludicrous and often obscene, 
the stories are not told for the sake of their humor, and his role of benefactor 
is never forgotten. 

Otter takes the part of the buffoon, and is presumably thrown into serious 
myths to lessen the gravity of the plot. Like Otter, the Hell-diver, is 
regarded as a clown and an ignoramus. An animal which appears in more 
southern tales as a water monster is identified by the Cree with the walrus, 
who, like the Horned Snake of other tribes, fears the implacable Thunder. 

The most characteristic of Eastern Cree tales are those concerning 
cannibalism, which may well have a foundation in fact, and those stories 
which narrate alternately the feats of ri\'al conjurors. Escaping danger 
by means of a hole dug in the ground seems to be a Cree institution. 

In common with their Saulteaux neighbors, the Cree are fond of making 
humorous quotations from well-known legends. For example, a half 
breed Cree-Ojibway noticing me talk earnestly to a crowd of Lidians 
observed laughingly, "Shingibis is walking!" The idea is that when 
Shingibis the Hell-diver, a very aquatic bird, takes to the land, there is 
something doing. A Cree, under almost identical conditions remarked, 
with the same purport, " W'isakatcak is in his conjuring tent!" 

Freaks, phenomena, and accidents, are often jocularly attributed to the 
mischievous pranks of Wisakatcak. A sly person may be nicknamed for 
the Trickster, but a dog is called Tcikapis under the same circumstances. 

A comparison with the folklore of their neighbors and some of their 
relatives shows that out of fifty incidents found among the Eastern Cree, 
twenty-two are common to the Ojibway, thirty to the Assiniboine, ten to 
the Sauk and Fox, eight to the Blackfoot, eight to the Naskapi, six to the 
Menomini, four to the Montagnais, and one to the Chipewyan. The 
discrepancy shown in the number of incidents among the Chipewyan and 
neighboring Montagnais, and the comparatively larger number among such 
more distant people as the Sauk and Fox may be accounted for by the fact 
that our data from the northern tribes are less complete. 

1 A series of good examples of this disnaembering may be found in Russell, 201. 



1911.] Skinner, The Eastern Cree. 83 

WlSAGATCAK.^ 

One winter day, ^Yisagatcak was chiseling for mythical "big" beaver. 
He caught the beaver by shutting up the creek with stakes, lea^■ing an 
opening in the center of the stream. He stood there waiting all day for 
the beaver to try to swim through the opening and escape. Towards 
evening, he saw one coming along, but just as he was about to kill it, INIusk- 
rat stole up behind and scratched his anus. This startled Wisagatcak so 
that he failed to slay his quarry. At last, it grew so dark that he could no 
longer see the game, so he went ashore and built a fire without eating any- 
thing. He thought to himself, "To-morrow, I will try to break the beaver* 
dam and dry up the creek." 

Early the next morning, Wisagatcak arose and made a pointed stick, or 
spear, from juniper. \Yith this he broke the dam, and when it was broken, 
the water began to rise, so that at last AYisagatcak could no longer stand on 
the ground. When this happened, he made a raft of logs and got on that. 
He took aboard a pair of every kind of animal and stayed there with them 
for two Meeks. They drifted about, for there was no chance to anchor 
anywhere, ^^'hile all this happened the Big Beaver were conjuring against 
Wisagatcak to revenge themselves for breaking their dam. After two 
weeks had passed, Wisagatcak wished to know the depth of the water under- 
neath the raft so he. took ISIuskrat and tied a long string to his feet and told 
him to di^■e under the water and bring up some mud. 

The rat went down; he was unable to reach the bottom and was drowned 
before Wisagatcak could pull him up. Wisagatcak waited for three days 
and then sent the crow to see if he could find any dry land. He told Crow 
if he found any he was to bring back some moss; but Crow came back 
empty-billed. 

When Wisagatcak learned this, he was frightened. He had a little 
moss on his raft and he took it and began to conjure. The next day, he 
told Wolf to take the moss in his mouth and run around the raft with it. 
W^olf did as he was told and as soon as he ran around the raft, earth began to 
appear and grow on it. Wolf continued to run around for a week while 
the land kept on growing larger. It continued to grow for two weeks. At 
the end of this time, Wolf had made it so big that he never came back. Since 
the earth is built over water, this accounts for the existence of subterranean 
springs. 

When Wolf liad been gone a week and had not yet returned, Wisagatcak 
said to the other animals, " Well, the ground must now be big enough for 

I Albany Cree. 



84 Anthropological Papers American Museum of Natural History. [Vol. IX, 

US to live on." Beaver asked Wisagateak. "How are we going to live? 
We are now eating willows and poplars and there are as yet no trees on the 
earth for us to live on." Wisagateak replied, "Just wait, you will need a 
Httle creek to live in also." "Yes," said Beaver. "I'll do something to- 
night," said Wisagateak. 

That night Wisagateak conjured again. He dug down through the 
earth over the raft to get a log from it; but the earth was now so great 
he could not find any trace of his raft. When Wisagateak failed to get even 
a stick he said to Beaver, " Well, I '11 make a creek for you, and you may 
live on the roots of the grass until trees grow up." That is why Beaver 
eats certain white roots to this day although his proper diet is bark. 

When Wisagateak had built the creek for Beaver, he dwelt in it. After 
a while, Wisagateak came back and found that Beaver had dug trenches 
everywhere in his search for roots. He saw one beaver swimming about. 
" Come here brother," he said, for he was the older brother of all the animals. 
The beaver refused to go. "Why do you call me," said Beaver, "when you 
only wish to kill me?" Then Wisagateak was angry and said, "I'll never 
come again." He never did. 

One time, when Wisagateak was out hunting, he saw a great number 
of wild fowl and said to himself, "What can I do to get them?" He was 
carr^'ing a big bag and he thought he would pull up some moss and fill his 
bag with that. He did so, and when he had stuffed it full he went away, 
carrying it on his back. When the wild fowl saw Wisagatcak's bundle, 
they approached and asked, "What is that you are carrying on jour back?" 
Wisagateak stopped and replied, " This is my ' singing wigwam ' (sic) where 
I used to sing and dance." Then he took out the moss and made a lodge 
of it. Wlien the wild fowl saw the wigwam, they came over and went in. 
Wisagateak said to the birds, " When I sing, take care to do everything 
that I say to do." Then all the wild fowl began to dance. 

After Wisagateak had sung for some time, he cried out in the song for 
all the birds to shut their eyes, and dance in a circle, with their heads and 
necks inward and close together. When the birds did this, Wisagateak 
took a cord and made a running noose of it which he threw over the necks 
of all the birds at once and so succeeded in strangling a great many of them. 
When Loon heard the dying l>eat of the wild fowls' wings he began to open 
his eyes and peep. As soon as he saw that the birds were being killed, he 
cried out, "Wisagateak is killing us," and ran to the door. Wisiigatcak 
pursued Loon, and just as he was escaping through the door, Wisagateak 
managed to kick him squarely in the rump. This accovmts for the peculiar 
shape of the loon's rinnp bone to-day. 

Then thought Wisagateak to himself, "I wonder how I can cook all 



1911.] Skinner, The Eastern Cree. 85 

these birds." He dug down under the sand by the fireplace for he intended 
to roast the fowls by burying them in the hot sand. In order to remember 
where he had put them, he left one leg of each bird sticking up above the 
surface. When he had done this, Wisagatcak wished to have a good sleep 
but before going to bed he said to his rump, " Well, you had better watch 
while I sleep." 

At last, someone passing by saw the tent. He waited until he was sure 
Wisagatcak was asleep and then he came and peeped in at the door. The 
faithful rump gave warning by breaking wind, Wisagatcak roused at once, 
jumped up, and looked about. The marauder, however, had disappeared 
and Wisagatcak saw no one and returned to bed. " Don't you fool me like 
that again," he said to his rump. 

As soon as the intruder heard Wisagatcak snore again, he came and 
peeped in the tent once more. Again, Wisagatcak's rump gave tongue. 
W'isagatcak leaped up and looked out, but again the culprit escaped him. 
As Wisagatcak could see no one, he spoke very sharply to his rump for 
deceiving him. Then he went back to his bed. As soon as he was asleep 
the man came and looked in again but this time Wisagatcak's rump was 
angry because it had been reproved twice, and failed to give warning. 
Then the man entered Wisagatcak's wigwam and stole all the geese and 
other wild fowl. The thief pulled off one foot from each and to deceive 
Wisagatcak stuck them up in the sand around the fire where the birds' had 
been. At length, Wisagatcak awoke and being very hungry, he commenced 
to pull up his geese, but all that he could find were the feet, so he knew he 
had been robbed while he slept. 

Wisagatcak was very angry with his rump for not warning him of tlie 
thief's approach. So he put a stone in the fire and heated it red hot. When 
it was hot enough he took off his leggings and breechclout and sat upon the 
stone to burn his rump to punish it for its treachery. As he sat on the hot 
stones he began to break wind and continued to do so. "Look here now." 
said Wisagatcak to his anus, "you suffer because you did not warn me." 
When he had finished burning it, it was withered and shaped like everyone's 
else and there was a deep crease burned in the middle. That is why man- 
kind has the rump shaped in this way. Formerly, a man's rump was 
puckered like that of a frog. 

Wlien Wisagatcak had done this, he went hurrying off and left his wig- 
wam standing. He took his bow and arrows to hunt game, for he was very 
hungry since he had lost his dinner. At every step he took he broke wind, 
"Poop! poop! poop!" and so his rump revenged itself by warning all the 
game and spoiling his hunting. 

At length, Wisagatcak began to starve because he could not approach 



8G Anthropological Papers American Museum of A'atural flistory [\'ol. IX, 

the game. "Don't make any more noise," said he to his rump, "and I'll 
give you something to eat." There was a big scab on his rump where he 
had burned it, and at last it dropped off. As Wisagatcak was starving, 
he picked up the scab and began to eat it. He thought it was dried meat.^ 
The squirrel saw Wisagatcak eating the scab and he could n't help laughing. 
"That is your own scab jou are eating," said he to Wisagatcak. Then 
Wisagatcak threw his scab at the birch tree and the punk of rotten birches 
is of that scab. Then Wisagatcak pounded the tree with a stick as well 
and thus he marked the bark in the way one sees it to-day. 

After Wisagatcak had done this, he went away from there. He saw a 
bear eating berries. He approached the liear to shoot it but his rump broke 
wind and warned the bear that Wisagatcak was coming. When the bear 
heard and saw Wisagatcak coming he would run off, but Wisagatcak called 
out, " Hold on, my brother." The bear answered, " I did not know you 
were a brother of mine." Wisagatcak replied, "Don't you know? Long 
ago, Ave were brothers; we will eat berries together. Do you see that thing 
sticking up out of the water there?" "No," said the bear. "Don't you 
see that thing sticking out of the water?" said Wisagatcak. "No, I see 
nothing," said the bear. "Do you know what I have done?" said Wisagat- 
cak, " Formerly, I used to see as poorly as you do, but I ma.shed berries and 
put them in my eyes." 

Then the bear thought he would like to see as well as Wisagatcak so 
he began to mash berries and put them in his eyes. " After I had done that," 
said Wisagatcak, " I went to bed and had a short nap. I had a stone for 
my pillow too." The bear did likewise. When the bear fell asleep Wisa- 
gatcak took up a big stone and mashed the bear's head with it and killed 
him.- Then Wisagatcak skinned the bear. He cut it in pieces and 
cooked them all. He preserved the grease and intestines. He did not 
attempt to eat until he had cooked all of it. While he was cooking he looked 
up and saw ]\luskrat swimming in the river. As the grease would not 
harden, he called to the rat to take it and swim through the water with it. 
When Muskrat returned with the grease, Wisagatcak stripped all the flesh 
from his tail to reward him for his services. Tliat is why it is so thin and 
skinny now, whereas formerly it was fat and broad like a beaver's and too 
heavy for him. "Try now and see how fast you can go," said Wisagatcak 
to Muskrat. Muskrat tried and went so fast that he broke the grease 
bladder and the grease and oil came out. This accounts for the smooth 
slick wake the muskrat leaves when swimming. It is the bear's oil and 
grease calming the water. 

1 Some narrators claim he knew it was his scab, but others hold the contrary to be true. 

2 One version of tliis tale makes Wisagatcak turn into a bear and live with his intended 
victim until lie got fat in the fall. 



1911.) Skiimer, The Eastern Cree. 87 

"Now, I will cat my hear," said Wisagatcak. He began to eat, Init he 
was soon so full that lie could hold no more. Then he went over to where 
two trees were standing close together. He stoofl between them and said, 
" Squeeze me mitil my stomach is stretched so far that I can finish my bear 
at one meal." At once, the trees came together and began to squeeze Wisa- 
gatcak. When they held Wisagatcak so closely that he could not get away, 
they called out to all the animals to come and eat his bear. 

All the animals came at once and though Wisagatcak begged the trees 
to let him go, they held him fast until his bear was eaten. When it was all 
gone, they released him. Of all the animals, Seal got the most grease, and 
Rabbit the least. That is why Seal is so fat and Rabbit so lean. When 
the trees finally released Wisagatcak, he was very angry. He started to 
revenge himself on them by twisting them with his hands. That is the 
reason some trees are spirally twisted in their growth. 

Wisagatcak went away. It was late in the fall and all the birds were 
flying south. He told them he would like to go with them. "I can fly as 
well as you," said he. He started off. The birds said to him, "If you see 
any people when 3'ou are flying, don't look at them, for if you do so, you 
will fall down." They all flew away and soon Wisagatcak saw some people. 
He looked hard at them and down he fell and was smashed to pieces. Then 
he resumed his human shape, for he had been a bird when he was flying. 

Then the Indians he had looked at came up. He was unalile to get up 
for some time, and whenever they felt like evacuating, they would go over 
and do it upon Wisagatcak. At last, an old woman came. Wisagatcak 
saw her approach, jumped up, and seized a stick which he shoved up her 
anus. He killed the old woman and ran his stick in the ground, leaving 
her upon it as meat is placed on a spit to roast before the fire. Then he 
went home. 

Once Wisagatcak was tra\'eling. As he went along he met three sisters 
who had never seen a man before. "Ah," thought Wisagatcak, "I will 
show them something." He had been hunting beaver and had a- freshly 
severed beaver's head in his hand. "Let us play a new game," said Wisa- 
gatcak to the best looking sister. "You take hold of one jaw and I will 
take the other and we will sit down, place our feet together, and j)ull apart." 
They did as Wisagatcak suggested and l)racing their feet against each other, 
began to pull. When the woman was exerting her utmost strength. Wisa- 
gatcak let go. 

Prostratam mulierem, vestibus sublatis genitalibas conspectis, stupravit. 
Ilia exclamavit, "Wisi'igatcak me interficiti" Tunc sorores eum detrahere, 
" minime mihi malum facit." ("um Wisagatcak eain stuprasset, nuilier 
itenun cum eo coire Nohiit, sed sorores quare tantam ex novo ludo cepit 



88 Anthropological Papers American Museum of Xatural History. [\o\. IX, 

delectationem nesciebant et ludum eiiodem disure concupi^"erunt. So she 
could not keep him to herself. Very soon Wisagatcak was very nearly dead, 
but they insisted upon his continuing the play. Finally, he escaped, but 
he was almost dead. 

At last, "Wisagatcak went to the north. On the other side of Winisk-sibi 
(Ground Hog or ^Yoodchuck River) he met the north wind Avho was travel- 
ing in the same direction. To escape from the north wind he built a shelter 
of rocks which may still be seen there to this day. It is just the size of a 
man. After this happened, nobody knows what became of ^Yisagatcak. 

^YEMISHUS.^ 

A whole family was once killed by the devil - (sic), excepting two very 
small boys. The Cannibal kept them, for he intended to fatten and eat 
them. The oldest boy discovered this and said to his brother, "Do you 
know where our mother's awl is?" "Yes," replied the little one. "Find 
it as quickly as you can, our parents have been killed and eaten by the 
Cannibal." 

The little fellow found the awl and gave it to his big brother who took 
it and bored a hole down into the ground. Then the little boys went into 
the hole and the oldest brother carried with him a piece of wood and a bit 
of stone, besides the awl. Early in the morning, the Cannibal disco\-ered 
the bovs were gone so he came into the hole to look for them. When the 
boys heard the Cannibal coming, the oldest brother took the youngest 
on his back, and fled through the hole under the ground. The first thing 
they knew, a root projecting from the roof of the hole, tore the little one's 
cheek very badly as they brushed by. 

Soon the Cannil)al began to gain on them. Then the older brother 
threw away the piece of wood. "Let a forest grow up," he cried, and up 
sprang a dense forest which hindered the progress of the Cannibal. At 
length, the Cannibal began to catch up again. This time the older brother 
tried throwing away the rag. Thick briars grew up where it fell and the 
Cannibal was again delayed, this time longer than before, but after a time 
he got through. When the older brother heard him coming, he threw 
away the stone, it became a very large boulder and shut up the hole. This 
time, it took the Cannibal a very long time to get through. Then the fugi- 
ti\es came out by the side of a lake. When the boys got to the shore they 
were frightened lest they could not escape. They saw some large animal 

1 Albany Cree. 

2 A cannibal or Wetigo. 



1911.] Skinner, The Eastern Cree. 89 

(^Yalrus) in the lake and they called to him to take them across. Walrus 
agreed. "Keep a sharp lookout for Thunder," he told them, "I only come 
out when it is a fine clear day, othenvise I stay beneath the surface." The 
little chaps promised and got on his back. As soon as they started out, it 
began to cloud up. Walrus saw the clouds and thought he heard it thunder. 
He was not sure, however, and he trusted the little boys to tell him. The 
boys were afraid that Walrus would dive under the water with them, so 
they dared not tell him. At last they reached the shallow water near the 
other shor^, where they knew they would be safe, so they told Walrus. 

Walrus said to the boys, "There is an old man named Wemishus who 
always travels up and down the lake near this place. If you see him com- 
ing, hide and never fire your arrows in the water, for if he sees them in the 
water he will find you. If you should shoot your arrows in the water, 
don't try to get them again, let them go." Then Walrus returned. 

When Walnis returned, the Cannibal was waiting on the shore. He 
called to Walrus, to take him across. "Sit on my. back then," .said Walrus, 
"but don't move, for if you do you will hurt my neck." The Cannibal 
promised, l)Ut when they were off he did move and hurt Walrus, who dove 
down and drowned him. 

Walrus often warned the boys about Wemishus. At last, one day, the 
old man came arovmd a point all at once and caught the boys unaware. 
Just then, the older boy's arrow fell into the water and Wemishus called 
to the boy to come and get it. For a long time, the lad was afraid. Wemi- 
shus said, "Come and take your arrow. I won't touch you. You can see 
I am far off in my canoe and could not reach you anywa\'. 

The boy approached. " Come a little closer," said Wemishus. The boy 
hesitated although Wemishus spoke to him se\eral times. At last, the 
boy came so close that Wemishus hooked him up into his canoe with his 
paddle. Then he took the boy away, crying. The younger brother lie 
left behind on the bank also crying. The older brother begged Wemishus 
to take the little one too, but he refused. "One is enough. For if 1 take 
your little l)rother there will be two of you against me and you will tie able 
to lieat me in conjuring." 

The little brother sat on the bank crying all day, for he thought that he 
would surely starve to death now that his brother was gone. At last, two 
polar bears came to him. "Don't cry any longer," said they, "we will 
bring you up." So they looked after him, and were just like dogs to him 
until he became a man. 

The older brother was taken home by Wemishus. When his daughter 
saw him, she said, "So you are bringing another one home to kill." \\em- 
ishus had brought the boy to be her husband, for he had already become a 
man. 



90 Anthropological Papers American Museum of Natural History. [Vol. IX, 

So the older brother took the girl to wife and Hved with her for a while. 
He was continually contesting with his father-in-law with the bow and 
arrow, and he always beat the old man. At last, the boy said one day to 
Wemishus, "I wonder where we can get some gulls' eggs?" "Oh," said 
Wemishus, "I know where to go." So off they went. As they walked 
along, they came to a great rock which was split open, and they had to 
jump over the crack. "You jump first," said Wemishus to the youth. 
Although the crack was very wide the boy jumped over. The old man was 
to jump next, but he drew back once, for he knew he would not succeed 
because the young man's power (medicine) was stronger than his. (It 
seems the old man had caused the split rock to be where it was by his magic, 
for he hoped to trap his son-in-law.) At last the old man jumped but he 
fell into the crack. The rock came together and would have killed him if 
he had been an ordinary man. Instead, however, it quickly released him. 
The old man's head was broken in four pieces but he tied the fragments 
and his head became whole again. They started off again; this time in 
their canoe. By and by, they came to the island where they expected to 
obtain the gulls' eggs and feathers. As they walked about, the old man 
kept sending the young man farther and farther away from the shore, 
until at last he had a chance to run to his canoe and get away. Wemishus 
did not paddle. He rapped on the bottom of his canoe with his staff and 
off it went. The young man killed a gull and collected some eggs. He 
skinned the gull. Then he crawled into the skin and flew off. He flew over 
Wemishus as he passed by. Wemishus was lying on his back in the canoe. 
The young man defecated full in his face as he flew by. " Oh, the odor," 
cried the old man, "the gulls have finished my son-in-law already." 

The young man flew home. He lit near by and took off the skin and 
went to his tent before the old man arrived. His wife asked him where her 
father was. " I 'm not taking care of him," said the young man, " but he is 
coming along over there." 

Finally, the old man arrived. When he came ashore he saw his two 
grandsons shooting with their bows and arrows. Their arrows were feath- 
ered with gulls' feathers and they had gulls' eggs to eat. " Where did you 
get those?" asked Wemsihus of his grandson. "Our father gave them to 
us," they replied. " Oh, your father, the gulls have eaten him by this time," 
said the old man, " for I found the smell of him as I came along in my canoe." 

When the old man really saw his son-in-law in the tent he was surprised. 
He sat there feeling very much frightened. He could not take his eyes off 
the young man. "No wonder you feel sad," said his daughter, "you 
always used to be trying to beat someone, but now you have someone to 
beat you." The old man had nothing to say, so to divert attention he 



1911.] Skinner, The Easlern Cree. 91 

cried out, "Oh, see that louse running about on my son-in-hivv's face." 
The old man began to get frightened for he could not x-anc^uish his son-in- 
law howe\'er hard he tried. 

It was nearing winter, and the two men were camping alone. They 
used to hang their leggings and moccasins to dry in the tent every night 
The younger man did not trust Weniishus and watched him all the time. 
He changed moccasins and leggings with the old man. Then the old man 
got up in the night and made a great fire. The young man lay still and 
pretended to be asleep but he watched his father-in-law all the time. The 
young man saw Wemishus go to where he thought his son-in-law's moccasins 
were and threw them in the fire. \Yhen he thought they were burned up 
he cried out, " Your leggings are burning." Then his son-in-law jumped up. 
"Mine are safe," he cried. "Where are yours?" Then \Yemishus found 
that he had been tricked into l)urning his own moccasins and leggings. 
They had a long way to go from their camp to their home. It was so cold 
the next day that the trees fairly cracked. The old man did n't know what 
to do, but he blackened his legs with charcoal to look like leggings, and he 
hoped that would keep out the cold. 

They started out. Soon the old man began to freeze. He said to his 
son-in-law, "The best thing I can do is to turn into a juniper (tamarack) 
tree. It will be good for my descendants to use for firewood." When the 
young man looked back where his father-in-law had stoofl, there was a 
juniper tree. 

The young man reached home. His sons were grown up now. His 
wife knew something had gone wrong, so she asked her husband where her 
father was. "Your father has got what he wanted now," said he. Then 
she guessed the old man was dead and began to cry. Then her husband 
told her the old man had burned all his clothes and turned into a juniper tree. 

"Now, I am going away," he told her, "our grown-up sons will look 
after you. I may come back again, and I may not." He really could n't 
tell, for he meant to go and look for his younger brother, who was now a 
grown man. So he went to the place where Wemishus had left the little 
fellow and sure enough, there he saw signs of his brother. He saw his tent 
and approached it. The younger brother knew someone was coming and 
came out with his bow^ and arrow drawn. "Don't shoot, I am your older 
brother," said the other. So the young man did not fire, for he heard him. 
Though he could just remember the time he had lost his older brother, for 
a long time he would not believe that this stranger was he. 

At last when the older brother asked the younger one many questions 
about his parents, he partly believed. " Did you ever look in the water to 
see yourself?" said the older brother. "Yes," replied the younger. "Did 



92 Anlhropological Papers American Museum of Natural History. [Vol. IX^ 

you see that scar on your face? Do you remember the root that caught you 
and scratched you?" "Yes, I remember that now," said the young man 
and now he was sure of his brother, and they Hved together. The elder 
brother wanted him to go home with him, but the young man w^ould not go, 
nor would he let his older brother go home. The young man asked him if 
he had a wife and family, but he said that he did not. The younger brother 
continually found the older one crying. "You must have a family if you 
cry so." "Yes," said he, "I have two grown-up sons." 

The two polar bears still lived with the youth, but he told them they must 
go now, for he had his brother. The bears were very sorry and when he 
did drive them away they came back two or three times. At last he said 
to the bears, " The next time you come back, I will be gone, and you will not 
see me." The two brothers went away, but in what direction, I did not 
hear. 

The Son of AioswE.^ 

Once there was an old man named Aioswe who had two wives. When 
his son by one of these women began to grow up, Aioswe became jealous 
of him. One day, he went off to hunt and when he came back, found marks 
on one of the women (the co-wife with his son's mother) which proved to 
him that his son had l)een on terms of intimacy with her. 

One day the old man and the boy went to a rocky island to hvmt for eggs. 
Wishing to get rid of his son. the old man persuaded him to gather eggs 
farther and farther away from the shore. The young man did not suspect 
anything until he looked up and saw his father paddling off in the canoe. 
"Why are you deserting me, father?" he cried. " Because you have played 
tricks on yoiu* stepmother," answered the old man. 

When the boy found that he was really left behind, he sat there crying- 
hour after hour. At last, Walrus appeared. He came near the island and 
stuck his head above the water. "What are you crying for, my son?" 
said Walrus. "My father has deserted me on this island and I want to 
get home to the mainland. Will you not help me to get ashore? " the boy re- 
plied. Walrus said that he would do so willingly. " Get on my back," said 
Walrus, "and I will take you to the mainland." Then Walrus asked 
Aioswe's son if the sky was clear. The boy replied that it was, but this was 
a lie, for he saw many clouds. Aioswe's son said this because he was afraid 
that Walrus would desert him if he knew it was cloudy. Walrus said, " If 
you think I am not going fast enough, strike on my horns (tusks) and let me 

' Or Aisweo. Rupert's House Cree, also Moose Factory. 



1911.] Skinner, The Eastern Cree. 93 

know when you think it is shallow enough for you to get ashore, then you 
can jump off my back and walk to the land." 

As they went along, Walrus said to the boy, "Now my son, you must 
let me know if you hear it thunder, because as soon as it thunders, I must go 
right under the water." The boy promised to let Walrus know. They 
had not gone far, when there came a peal of thunder. Walrus said, "^ly 
son, I hear thunder." "Oh, no, yovi are mistaken," said the boy who feared 
to be drowned, "what you think is thunder is only the noise your body 
xnakes going so quickly through the water." Walrus believed the boy and 
thought he must ha^•e been wrong. Some time later, there came another 
peal of thunder and this time, Walrus knew he was not mistaken, he was 
sure it was thunder. He was very angry and said he would drop Aioswe's 
son there, whether the water was shallow or not. He did so but the lad 
had duped ^^ alms with his lies so that he came where the water was very 
shallow and the boy escaped, but Walrus was killed by lightning before he 
could reach water deep enough to di^'e in. This thunderstorm was sent to 
destroy Walrus by Aioswe's father, who conjured for it. Walrus, on the 
other hand, was the result of conjuring l\v his mother, who wished to save 
her son's life.^ 

^^^aen Aioswe's son reached the shore, he started for home, but he had 
not gone far before he met an old woman, who had been sent as the result 
•of a wish for his safety by his mother (or was a wish for his safety on his 
mother's part, personified). The old woman instructed the lad how to 
conduct himself if he ever expected to reach his home and mother again. 
" Xow you have come ashore there is still a lot of trouble for you to go through 
before you reach home," said she, and she gave him the stuffed skin of an 
ermine (weasel in white winter coat). "This will be one of your weapons 
to use to protect yourself," were her words as she tendered him this gift, 
and she told him what dangers he would encounter and what to do in each 
<;ase. 

Then the son of Aioswe started for his home once more. As he journe^^ed 
through the forest he came upon a solitary wigwam inhabited by two old 
blind hags, who were the result of an ad^•erse conjuration by his father. 
Both of these old women had sharp bones like daggers protruding from the 
lower arm at the elbow. They were very savage and used to kill everybody 
they met. When Aioswe's son approached the tent, although the witches 
could not see him, they knew from their magic powers that he was near. 
They asked him to come in and sit down, but he was suspicious, for he did 
not like the looks of their elbows. 

1 One version of this tale says that Walrus dived and escaped, leaving the boy struggling 
in the water and that a gull pitied him and carried him ashore. 



91 Anthropological Papers American Museum of Naiural History. [\'ol. IX, 

He thought of a plan by which he might dupe the old women into kilhng 
eacli other. Instead of going himself and sitting between them he got a 
large parchment and fixing it to the end of a pole, he poked it in between 
them. The old women heard it rattle and thought it was the boy himself 
coming to sit between them. Then they both turned their backs to the 
skin and began to hit away at it with their elbows. Every time they stabbed 
the skin, they cried out, "I am hitting the son of Aioswel I've hit him.' 
ISe hit him I" At last, they got so near each other that they began to hit 
one another, calling out all the time, "I am hitting the son of Aioswel" 
They finally stabbed each other to death and the son of Aioswe escaped this 
danger also. 

^^'hen the young man had vanquished the two old women he proceeded 
on his journey. He had not gone very far when he came to a row of dried 
human bones hung across the path so that no one could pass by without 
making them rattle. Not far away, there was a tent full of people and big 
dogs, ^^^lenever they heard anyone disturb the bones, they would set 
upon liim and kill him. The old woman who had ad^■i3ed Aioswe's sons 
told him that when he came to this place he could escape by digging a 
tunnel in the path under the bones. \Mien he arrived at the spot he began 
to follow her advice and burrow under. He was careless and when he was^ 
very nearly done and completely out of sight, he managed to rattle the bones. 
At once, the dogs heard and they cried out, " That must be Aioswe's son." 
All the people ran out at once, but since Aioswe's son was under ground in 
the tunnel they could not see him, so after they had searched for^ while 
they returned. Tlie dogs said, "We are sure this is the son of Aioswe," 
and they continued to search. __ 

At length, they found the mouth of the hole Aioswe's son had dug. The 
dogs came to the edge and began to bark till all the people ran out again 
Avith their weapons. Then Aioswe's son took the stuffed ermine skin and 
poked its head up. . All the people saw it and thought it was really Ermine. 
Then the\- were angry and killed the dogs for lying. 

Aioswe's son escaped again and this time he got home. When he drew 
near his father's wigwam, he could hear his mother crying, and as he ap- 
proached still closer he saw her. She looked up and saw him coming. She 
cried out to her husband and co-wife, "My son has come home again." 
The old man did not believe it. "It is not possible," he cried. But his 
wife insisted on it. Tlien the old man came out and when he saw it was 
really his son, he was very much frightened for his own safety. He called 
out to his other wife, "Bring some caribou skins and spread them out for 
my son to walk on." But the boy kicked them away. "I have come a 
long way," said he, "with only my bare feet to walk on." 



1911.] Skinner, The Eastern Cree. 95 

That night, the boy sang a song about the burning of the world and the 
old man sang against him but he was not strong enough. " I am going to 
set the world on fire," said the boy to his father, " I shall make all the lakes 
and rivers boil." He took up an arrow and said, "I am going to shoot this 
arrow into the woods, see if I don't set them on fire." He shot his arrow 
into the bush and a great blaze sprang up and all the woods began to burn. 

"The forest is now on fire," said the old man, " but the water is not yet 
burning." " I '11 show you how I can make the water boil also," said his son. 
He shot another arrow into the water, and it immediately began to boil. 
Then the old man who wished to escape said to his son, "How shall we 
escape?" The old man had been a great bear hunter and bad a large 
quantity of bear's grease preserved in a bark basket. " Go into your fat 
basket," said his son, "you will be perfectl\ safe there." Then he drew a 
circle on the ground and placed his mother there. The ground enclosed 
by the circle was not even scorched, but the wicked old man who had 
believed he would be safe in the grease baskets, was burned to death. 

Aioswe's son said to bis mother, " Let us become birds. What will you 
be?" "I'll be a robin," said she. "I'll be a whisky jack (Canada jay)," 
he replied. They flew off together. 

TclGiBis, THE Hell Diver. ^ 

Tcigibis was out canoeing and as he went along he saw Otter lying on the 
bank. Otter knew that Tcigibis had seen him so he took some punk and 
put some up his nostrils and up his rectum and lay down again, feigning 
death. AYhen Tcigibis returned he saw Otter lying there and went ashore 
to look at him. AYhen he saw the rotted wood on Otter's nose and anus, 
he said, "Well, it seems this otter is full of maggots." Tcigibis turned back 
from there and hunted up Crawfish and told him he had just found Otter 
lying dead. Not long before this. Otter had tried to kill and eat Crawfish, 
but he had only succeeded in pulling all his legs and his claw off on one side. 

When Crawfish heard that his enemy was dead, he was very glad. He 
called all the other crawfish together and said, " Let us go over and see the 
dead otter." They all went over and a whole lot of them went ashore to 
look at him. As soon as they saw the punk in Otter's rectum, they com- 
menced to pull it out. Otter w^as so amused at this that he could not help 
laughing. One of the crawfish then said, "I believe that that Otter is 
moving." Crawfish, who had been pulling the punk out of Otter's rectum 

1 Albany Cree. 



IX^ Anihropoloffical Papers Amffican Musetim of Natural History. [Vol. IX, 

replied. "Oh. I guess that was I. I must have moveti Otter."" Thou Otter 
jump)e<i up and caught all tlie crawfish but one whose legs had all been 
pulled off on one side by Otter on a former occasion. He was afraid to go 
too near and that is how he was saved. From him. all the crawtish we have 
to-day are descended. 

After this. Tcigibis went canoeing again. As he was traveling, lie shot 
and killed a caribou. Tcigibis had a wife and he was jealous of Loon who 
■was his brother on her account. "For."" he said, "I believe Loon is after 
my wife." When he had killed the caribou, he went and found Loon 
sleeping. Then Tcigibis took an iron and heated it in the fire vmtil it wa^ 
red hot, and then he shoved it down Loon's throat and killed him. When 
he had killed Loon, he went back and took some of the blood of the caribou 
and put it in his grease bag. Then he hid the grease bladder in his bosom. 
When Tcigibis had done these things he went home. 

When Tcigibis reached home he went ashore and everyone came down 
to see what game he had. The people all knew (^supernaturally'l that he 
had killed his brother. They called out to him, " Your brother is dead now."" 
He pulled out his knife and stabbed himself in the bosom, piercing the 
bladder of blood which ran out all over his body. Then he fell over in the 
water and escaped by making a long dive. 

At first, all the people really thought that Tcigibis had committed stucide 
but when they saw him reappear in the water, a long distance away, they 
were undeceived, and gave chase. Tcigibis escaped, however, and it is 
just as well, for had the people caught and killed him, there would ha\e been 
no more hell divers to this day. 

MisHi Shigak. Big Skuxk.^ 

Big Skunk went hunting one day but he foimd no game to kill except a 
toad. He told his w-ife to cook the toad, and after he had eaten it he went 
to bed and had a sleep. He dreamed that someone had seen his tracks so 
next mornmg, when he got up, he told his wife to go and get what was left 
of the toad, and when he had finished it. he went back over his trail of the 
day before. Sure enough, he saw that someone had come out from imder 
the snow and had seen his trail and followed it. It v\-as Weasel. There 
were a lot of animals of all kinds campmg near by and they were starving. 
They were very much afraid of Big Skimk, so when they learned that Weasel 
had seen his trail they all fled away from him. 

As the animals were fleeing, they came to Beaver's camp. They all 

1 Albany version. 



1911.] Skiraver, Tlie Ea^.em Cr&s. 97 

went in and begged for forxL Beaver always has plenty of food in his camp 
and he wished to feed the poor animals. He had big bundles of all kinds of 
meat so he started to pull one out. It was so hea\y that the strain made 
him break wind. This made Otter snicker. The other animals were very 
much frightened at this because they feared Beaver would be offended and 
not give them an\-thing to eat. Beaver tried to lift the bundle a second 
time and again he broke wind. This time Otter simply could not help 
bursting out laughing, and it made Beaver so angrj- that, just as they feared, 
he refused to give them an\-thing to eat. It was just as well, however, for 
had the animals taken any of Beaver's meat, they would ever afterwards 
have been obliged to live on bark and grass as Beaver does. All the anim^ 
left Beaver's camp. 

As soon as Big Skunk found Weasel's track he began to pursue him. 
He knew he was with the other animals. As he went along he thought he 
would see if his rump was powerful enough to kill game. He backed around 
and aiming at a stump, blew it all to pieces with his discharge. Then he 
took up the trail again. After a while, he came to a steep mountain, and 
backing up to it he blew it all to pieces. "Xow, that is all right," he said, 
"I can kill them all now." 

He went off until he came to a camping ground and found the animals 
had all fled. One old otter (not the one who laughed at Beaver) was all 
tired out and too feeble to flee from him. ^Mien this otter saw Big Skunk 
coming it pretended to be dead. \Mien Big Sktmk came up he began to 
examine it aU over to see how it had been kiUed, but he could not find any 
marks on its body. At last, he thrust his finger up Otter's aboral aperture. 
"Well, that is the place the buUet went in," said Big Skimk. "When I 
come back I will pick him up," he said and covered Otter with brush. 

The animals continued to flee before Big Skimk. They tried to pick 
out a lull}' road to tire him out. At last they came on Wolverene who was 
chiseling beaver. The animals were 5tar\-ing, they had been fleeing from 
Big Skimk for several days and had had no food. Wolverene sent the ani- 
mals to his camp to get food. " If Big Skimk comes, I'll shout," said he to 
them. 

Shortly after. Big Skunk did come up. "I'm entirely played out now," 
said Big Skunk to Wolverene. " I have followed those am'mals over a good 
many mountains and hills. "Well," said Wolverene, "you shouldn't 
run about so much. You should stay in one place." " Do 3'ou \s45h to make 
me angry?" said Big Skunk. Then he turned about and discharged his 
flatus at Wolverene. Then Wolverene bit Big Skunk's anus and closed 
it with his mouth. He held on so that Skunk could not fire. He shouted 
to all the animals for help and they all ran out. Then Otter took his tail 



98 Anthropological Papers American Museiun of Natural History. [Vol. IX, 

and stabbed Big Skunk witli it as thougli it had been a spear, right through 
the body. 

Lynx got a bad cramp when he was running to the spot so that he could 
not move, but one of the animals returned and cured Lynx so be recovered 
and coming up grabbed Big Skunk by the neck and finished him. 

Then Wolverene could not open his eyes, for Big Skunk had discharged 
full in his face. "Make a hole in the ice," said Wolverene to the beasts, 
"so I can wash my eyes." "Don't wash yourself at the lake," said they, 
"go out to the sea and wash there. It will be salty if you do." So Wolver- 
ene started off for the sea. When Wolverene struck against a tree, he could 
not see anything, he would say, "Who are you?" "I am Black Spruce," 
"I am Tamarack," or "I am White Spruce," whatever they were, those 
trees told him truly. At last, he ran into a stump, "Who are you?" he 
said. "I am a stump, lying on the shore." Then he struck something 
else. "Who are you?" "I am the ice." Soon he fell in the water and 
washed himself clean. That is why the water of the sea (James and Hud- 
son's Bay) is salt. It is Big Skunk's flatus that made it so. Then, when 
Wolverene could see, he came ashore. As he started for home, he sang 
a song which he made to himself. 

" Niki ki pot! yepaw mishi Shigak." 
"I closed Big Skunk's anus for him." 

As Wolverene was returning, three wolves heard him singing. They 
were his brothers-in-law, for he had married a wolf. They planned to hide 
and scare him. " Hello brother," they cried, " what are you singing about? " 
Wolverene was afraid and climbed into a tree. "Are you single?" asked 
the wolves. "Yes," lied Wolverene. After a while he consented to come 
down. 

It was winter. When it was night they sent Wolverene ahead to find 
a suitable place to camp. Wolverene wanted to camp in the thick forest. 
The wolves at once claimed that he had deceived them since only a married 
man would wish to camp in the thick forest. Then they camped in the open 
in a hole in the snow. Wolverene nearly froze. He was so cold that he 
wept. He begged the woh-es to cover him with their tails. They covered 
him with their tails from opposite directions and at last he went to sleep. 
Before they went to bed they made a fire. Wolverene lighted it with a 
flint and steel. Then the wolves jeered, "No single man ever carried a 
flint and steel. This is the way we make fire," said the wolves. They 
piled up the wood and leaped over it, and it blazed up. 

Next morning, they found a deer track and followed it. They noticed 
something in the snow, and at last they found a deer-killing implement. 
Thev came to a lake and killed the deer there. Then they divided it into 



1911.] Skinner, The Eastern Cree. 99 

four equal parts of ficsli, and marrow hones. Tliey ate the deer flesh, and 
in the evening they began to split the bones for the marrow. When the 
wolves were to split their bones, they told Wolverene to close his eyes or a 
splinter would fly in them and blind him. Wolverene did as he was bidden 
and the wolves took up a bone and struck him over the head with it. Wol- 
verene cried out, and the wolves replied that he must have been looking. 

Wolverene then told the wolves to close their eyes while he split his 
marrow bones. He took up a bone and struck one of the wolves over the 
head and killed him. This made the other two very angry. Wolverene 
tried to explain that his victim must have been looking but the wolves told 
him he must leave them. He went oft" the next morning. The wolves 
gave him the power of lighting the fire by jumping over it, but told him 
to use it onl}' after having hunted. 

The next day Woherene tried his power at mid-day, although he had 
not hunted. He only got smoke. Finally, he succeeded in getting fire. 
At night, he again succeeded in making fire so he threw away his flint and 
steel. The next day he tried to light his fire this way but could not succeed. 
Then he triefl to find his flint and steel but he could not. He nearly froze. 
He walked four days before he met his family. 

His brothers-in-law (the two wolves) and his mother-in-law were there 
before him. Their tents were close together. Wolverene began to hunt. 
He killed a lot of beaver but the wolves could n't kill anything. One day, 
the wolves tracked a moose. They asked Wolverene to help them but he 
said he did not want to eat moose, he wanted to eat beaver. The wolves 
drove the moose on to the lake where Wolverene was chiseling beaver and 
it passed him as it fled. WTien the w^olves came vip, they asked Wolverene 
for their quarry. Wolverene replied, " If his tail had been long enough, 
you would have seen it." So the wolves hurried up and caught and killed 
the moose. 

W'olverene wanted some moose meat. He had been so stingy with his 
beavers that he was afraid the wolves would not give him any. He could 
see the moose fat hung on a pole in front of the wolves' lodge. The wolves 
knew that he would beg for some, so they had frozen the inner stomach of 
the moose into a club to kill him when he should ask for it. 

Woherene went home and loaded his sled with beaver meat. He 
intended to make his mother-in-law a present and then ask for some moose 
meat. He put large beaver tails on the front of his sled so that his mother- 
in-law would find them at once. When he arrived at her lodge she asked 
him why he was bringing them meat when they had plenty and had not 
done so before, when they were starving. However, she gave him some fat, 
and told him to close his eyes while lie ate it. The wolves hit liim with the 



100 Anthropological Papers American Mitseum of Xatwral Hilary. {Vol. IX. 

"bowl" - of the frozen inner stomacli. Wolverene cried out in pain, but 
they hit him again and killed him. Then they took the frozen fat from his 
mouth, for they said it was getting dirty and was too good to waste. The 
wolves then killed his two httle ones and speared his wife to death. 



Why James Bat is Salt.- 

One day. Wolverene killed a skimk out in the forest. Skimk discharged 
his fluid in Wolverene's face and blinded him. Wolverene tried to reach 
the water to wash it off. Everj' tmie he came to a tree he would ask it what 
kind it was. At length, he came to some driftwood, and from this he con- 
cluded that he was near the sea. Final h", he reached the sea and washed 
skunks fluid out of his eves, and it is this fluid that makes the sea salt. 



The Adventxres of Tcikapis i^Rupens House ^'e^sion).^ 

Once there was a yoimg boy named Tcikapis who lived alone with his 
sister. Their mother and father had been slain by an animal called "Kat- 
ci'tos" before the boy could remember. One day, when he grew old enough 
to go out hunting he asked his sister what color the hair of his parents had 
been. She repHed, "Oiu- father was dark, and oiu- mother was light." 
He took his bow and arrows and went out singing a song, the gist of which 
was that he would Uke to meet the animal that killed his father and mother. 
The bear appeared, "Are you looking for me?" he asked. "Do you eat 
people," asked Tcikapis, "when you meet them? " " Oh no," said the bear, 
" I run away." " Then I don't want you," said Tcikapis. Other animals 
came and answered his questions in the same manner. At last came the 
" Katci'tos." " Are you looking for me? " he asked. " Do you eat people? " 
asked Tcikapis. "Yes," answered the animal. "How strong are you?" 
asked Tcikapis. "As strong as that Jackpine." said the animal pointing 
to a tree. 

Tcikapis turned arotind and fired his arrow at the tree to try his strength. 
He shivered it to splinters. This frightened the animal who started to run 
away. Tcikapis hastened and picked up his arrow. The animal was out 
of sight, but Tcikapis fired where it had disappeared. He ran to the spot 
and found it dead, split from head to tail by his arrow. In its belly he 

I This seems to refer to tlie fact that the inner stomach of the moose and caribou is 
sometimes tised as a cooking utensil by the Eastern Cree. 
» Moose Fort Cree- Told by Tom Bain, imperfect. 
» Xarrated by Joe Iserhoff. 



1911.] Skinner, The Ea-sUrn Cree. 101 

found the hair of his father and mother which he recognized by its color. 
He took it home to his sister. 

One day Tcikapis told his sister to set some hooks for fish. She did so. 
Then Tcikapis took his bow, turned up, and got into it like a canoe, for 
he had the power to make himself very small or as large as a normal 
man. He went sailing along when up came a great fish. The fish was 
about to swallow Tcikapis, canoe and all, when he said, " Swallow me whole, 
don't bite me." The fish did so and went away. Tcikapis looked from 
the fish's stomach out of his mouth and saw the hook his sister had set. 
" ^Yllat is that over there? " he said to the fish. The fish went to see and took 
the bait. Later Tcikapis' sister pulled in the line and caught the fish. 
^Mien she gutted it, out stepped Tcikapis. His sister scolded him for this 
but he only laughed. 

One time during the winter, Tcikapis heard someone out on the ice, 
chiseling beaver. He said to his sister, "I am going out to help those 
people catch beaver." " Do not go," said his sister, " they are ' Big Fellows' 
(giants) and they are catching big beaver and they will get you to take hold 
of a beaver's tail and you viill only be pulled in so they will laugh at you." 
"Xever fear," said Tcikapis, "'I am going." 

Tcikapis made himself very small and went out to the nvev. The 
" Big Fellows" laughed at him and asked him to take hold of a beaver's tail 
and pull it out, because they expected to see him pulled in so that they could 
laugh at him. Tcikapis took hold of a beaver's tail and pulled it out 
v^-ithout difficulty. He threw it over his shoulder and walked away to his 
lodge. When the "Big Fellows" saw this, they shouted, "Here, bring 
back our beaver," Tcikapis replied, " It is my beaver, I caught it." 

WTien he reached home, his sister was frightened and said, " To-night the 
'Big Fellows' vriW come and kill us." Tcikapis only laughed and said, 
" I am not afraid of them." That night he changed his wigwam into stone. 
The "Big Fellows" came and tried to break it in, but it was solid rock and 
Tcikapis only laughed at them. 

One day Tcikapis heard some girls scraping skin. He said to his sister, 
"I am going to see those girls." His sister said, "Do not do so, their 
mother eats people." But Tcikapis was not afraid and went over where 
the girls were. There were two of them. 

He began to make love to them, and very soon the old woman heard them 
talking and laughing. She came up, and Tcikapis said to the girls, "Do 
you mind if I kill your mother?" The girls said, "Xo," for she killed all 
their lovers. Tcikapis replied, " ^^^len she goes to cook me, tell her to sit 
close to the pot if she likes to see the grease come up." 

Tcikapis had a bladder full of grease under his coat, and when the old 



102 Anthropnlogiad Papers American Museum of Natural History. [Vol. IX, 

woman threw him in the pot he let it bubble up. It began to boil soon. 
After a time, the girls said, " Mother, if you like to see the grease come up, 
sit closer to the pot." She did so, and Tcikapis leaped out and scalded her 
to death. Then Tcikapis went home and brought the girls with him. 
"Here are two girls, sister," he said, "to keep you company so that you 
will not be lonely any more." " What mischief have you been up to now?" 
said his sister. "Nothing," said Tcikapis, "I have only killed the old. 
woman and the girls said that they were willing I should do it." 

Tcikapis climbed up a tree one day. When he got on the top of the tree 
he began to blow on it, and it began to grow. It grew until it reached the 
sky. Tcikapis got off, and there he found a beautiful path. (It was the 
road the sun traveled across the heavens every day.) Tcikiipis wondered 
what made this fine path, so he lay down to wait. Presently, the sun came 
along. "Get out of my way," said the sun to Tcikapis. "Come on, and 
step over me," said Tcikapis rudely. 

The sun refused, but after some argument, finding Tcikapis would not 
move, he came and stepped over him. It was so hot that it burned Tcikapis, 
caribou skin coat. This made Tcikapis very angry and be determined to be 
revenged so he set a snare for the sun. Next day, when the sun came along 
its path it was caught in the snare, and struggled to get loose. When it 
struggled there were great flashes of light and dark or day and night. 
This, of course, would not do, so Tcikapis tried to let the sun loose, but it 
was so hot that it l)urned him when he went near it. At length, Tcikapis 
persuaded the shrew who has a very long nose, to gnaw it loose. 

After this, Tcikapis decided to go up above to live. He descended and 
got his two wives and his sister. They all climbed into the tree, and Tcikapis, 
began to blow on it. The tree grew higher and higher, so high that his 
sister and his two wives grew dizzy and they would fall off, but every time 
they fell off Tcikapis would catch them and put them back again. 

The Adventures of Tcikapis (Albany Version).^ 

(While their parents were being devoured by lirown bears, Tcikapis 
and his sister escaped by climbing a tall tree where they could not be 
seen.) 

Tcikapis and his sister lived beside a lake. One day the sister told him 
not to go out on a tree leaning over the water, but Tcikapis shot a bird and 
it fell into the water. In order to get it Tcikapis climbed out on the tree to 
reach it and was de\oured by a fish. By and by, his sister missed him and 



I Narrated by Willie Archibald. 



1911.] Skinner, The Eastern Cree. 103 

suspecting that the fish had eaten hun she caught it with a hook. When 
she went to cut it up, Tcikapis cried, "Slowly, slowly, or you will cut me." 
When Tcikapis was released he said to her, "Don't scrape the (fish) slime 
off the top of my head and my upper lip, and the people who come later 
will have hair there." 

The next day, Tcikapis was hunting, he heard a noise and came home. 
His sister cried out, "It is the bears who killed our parents, don't go." 
Tcikapis went, however, and killed the bears! He found his mother's 
braid of hair in one. He burned the carcasses. 

Tcikapis went out again the next day. Again, he heard a noise and 
retin-ned. His sister said to him, " Don't go out, it is the noise made by 
giant women scraping bea^^er skins. The next day, Tcikapis went out and 
saw the giant women at work. He shot a "Whisky Jack" (Canada ja3') 
and dressed in its skin and flew about. He stole the grease the women had 
scraped off the skins. The giant women knew it was Tcikapis, and one 
of them knocked him down with her scraper which she threw at him and 
killed him. Then they threw him into a kettle of boiling water and laughed 
as he whirled round and round. Tcikapis was not really dead, however. 
Suddenly, he jumped out and scalded the people all to death. 

Next day, Tcikapis heard the giant men netting (chiseling) bea\'er under 
the ice. He made himself very small and went to them. The giants asked 
him to pull out a giant beaver by the tail, expecting him to be pulled in 
and drowned; he, howe\er, succeeded, much to their surprise. Tcikapis 
opened the sinew lining of his bow and put the beaver there. The giants 
shouted to him to bring it ))ack, but he refused. 

He gave the beaver to his sister to cook. While he was skimming the 
grease to eat from the pot where the beaver was boiling, the giants came 
with their w^ar spears, to harpoon him, stabbing through his tent. Tcikapis 
had a round, flat shell of spoon shape, he put it on his back and covered 
himself. The giants entered his wigwam but they could n't break the shell 
although they knew very well that Tcikapis was under it. Then they 
threatened to take away his sister if he did n't come out, but he did not 
budge They burned the tent and took away his sister. 

When they had gone, Tcikapis came out and strung his bow and fol- 
lowed them. He came up to them when they were crossing a swamp or 
muskeg. He said to his arrow, " Don't fall on those that are short, fall 
only on the tall ones." He fired the arrow which destroyed the giants but 
did not harm his sister. 

Next daj', Tcikapis went out again. He found a fine path. He went 
home and told his sister. She said, "That is the path where the sun walks 
over night." Tcikapis got some string from his sister and made a snare. 



104 Anthropological Papers American Museian of Xatural History. [Yol. IX, 

In the morning, when the sim came along it was canght. There was no 
dayhght the next day. Tcikapis did n't know what to think, but at last 
he got up and made the fire. Then he told his sister he had caught the sun. 
As it would not do to have perpetual darkness, Tcikapis called all the ani- 
mals together to release the sun by cutting the string. He asked the 
smaller animals to try first, thinking that they would be least apt to be 
burned. First he tried the ermine (weasel) but he was burned to death. At 
last he tried the shrew who succeeded in releasing the sun. 

The Virgin Birth. ^ 

Once, in the old days, there was a very beautiful girl who was a chief's 
daughter. All the young men made love to her et cum ea coire volebant. 
In those days, it was customary for quisquan cum virgine coiiseet to also 
marry her. But she would have nothing to do with them. 

In the village, there was a certain young boy who also loved her but he 
was so young that everybody laughed at him. However, during the winter 
he watched the girl, et quondocumque mincture exiret eodem loco minxit. 
After a time, the girl became pregnant from this cause, and gave birth to a 
child. The chief called all the young men together and when they had 
gathered in the wigwam he announced that he would pass the child about 
and when the father took the child in his arms infantum in patrem minc- 
turum. This was done. 

There was a certain yovmg man in the village who loved the girl and he 
filled his mouth with spittle. AYhen the child was passed to him he per- 
mitted it to nm out all over him and cried, " I am the child's father, you 
can see in me minxit.'' But some in the crowd saw what he had done and 
they called out, "You lie," so he was disappointed. The child was passed 
on and when it reached its father verum in ilium minxit. 

Then the young boy took his wife and settled down. The rest of the 
people were angry (jealous) at him, and moved away, lea^'ing him alone. 
He went hunting and was very successful. Tlie rest of the people were not, 
however, and they nearly starved. At length, they heard he had meat and 
returned and begged for some. 

The Beaver "Wife. 

There was a man in the olden days who tried e^'ery female animal to 
see who was the smartest to work that he might keep her to live with him. 

1 Narrated by Joe Iserhofl. 



1911.] Skinner, The Eastern Cree. 105 

He tried the deer (caribou) first, but she did not please him, so he sent her 
away. He next tried the wolf. She did not please him, as she was too 
wicked and greedy. He then came across the moose and did not like her. 
Then he tried the fisher but she did not please him either. He tried the 
marten and she did not please him. He tried the lynx and lived with her 
a while. She was smart but still she did not please him. He went off and 
lived with Otter but she was too funny and made too much noise. Then 
he thought he would try some of the flN'ing animals. He tried the owls, 
but they did not care for his tent properly when he was away hunting, and 
besides they ate too much. As the whisky-jack (wiskatcak, Canada jay) 
was always about him, he asked her if she could look after his tent. She 
said she could try it. She staid for a while; she was very cleanly and kept 
the tent decent. 

One day, he told her he would go and hunt caribou and chisel beaver. 
She had everything ready, water and wood, when she expected him back. 
He came home in the evening and threw down his game (three or four beaver 
tied together) at the tent door. He came in without iiis game, as is custom- 
ary among the Cree, and hearing the Vjundle fall she ran out to get it. It 
was so heavy that it broke her legs when she tried to lift it. She could n't 
rise so she told her husband and he brought in the bea\er. He said he woidd 
get his bowstring and bind up her legs so that they would get well. He did 
so and she recovered. Ever afterwards, however, one can see the marks 
of the ^\Tapping on the whisky-jack's legs. He continued to live with her 
until she got well, then he told her she could leave as the work was too hard 
for her. 

One day, when he was walking about, he met Beaver cutting do^^^l a 
tree. She left her dwelling and came to him. She was very attentive 
and a good worker. She could do anything a man might wish; she could 
wash and dress fur well. ^Mien the man found she was so pleasing he asked 
her if she would become his wife and live with him. 

Before she would promise she said to him, " It will be hard for me to do 
what you ask me, and hard for you too. There is only one condition under 
which I will live with you. As I live in the water and you on the dry land, 
you must never forget when crossing a little valley or creek to break down 
a stick and lay it across the water or else it will become a big river. \ ou 
must promise never to forget this even when you are tired and in a great 
hurry, or the river will appear and we will be separated." 

He lived with her for a while. At last, he became careless. One time, 
towards the spring (it was not yet summer) he was leading the way through 
the forest. She followed, hauling the tent utensils. At last, he crossed a 
valley that did not look as though water would ever run through it. He 



106 Anthrojwiogicai Papers American Museum of Natural History. [\'ol. IX, 

thought "Surely this can never become a river," and put nothing there. 
He went on, found a suitable camping place, left his sled for his beaver wife 
to pitch the camp and went off hunting. When he returned he found his 
sled still there, and there was no sign of his wife. At once, he remembered 
his neglect to put the stick across the valley, but he could not believe this 
to be the cause of her absence. When she did not return he went back to 
the place where the omission occurred and there he found a great river and 
saw his wife swimming about in it building a beaver house. She had it 
already finished. 

He began to cry for he was \'ery fond of his wife and now he knew he had 
lost her. He begged her to come to see him but she would not come ashore 
and acted as though she was afraid of him. She told him to come to her. 
He did not know what to do, as he feared to drown. She said, "At first 
you'll find it hard, but if you dive down and come up inside the house, it is 
dry there." 

At last, he thought to himself that he would try, although he was rather 
afraid. He swam out and she came to meet him. She told him where to 
dive and he followed her into the door, and came up on the inside where it 
was dry. He lived with her for a long time. He had to eat what she ate, 
willows and bark of trees. It was not very nice for him after eating meat 
and men's food. After a time, he began to become able to swim about and 
act like a beaver. Occasionally^ he went ashore and walked about. He 
learned to build beaver houses, but could not cut down a tree with his teeth 
as they did. For this, he used his ax which he l)rought with him. He 
lived with the beavers a good many years. 

This man had a brother who missed him as the years went by. At last 
he dreamt what had become of his brother and went to look for him. Right 
enough, he found different signs where the beaver lived. Trees had been 
cut with an ax, etc. The brother could not find him, as he only came out 
at night when the beaver did and slept all day. The brother had to wait 
till winter, when he declared he would find him. When the middle of the 
winter arrived, the brother went off to find the lost man. The beaver man 
dreamed that his brother was coming and told his wife that this would 
happen and that they would soon be separated. 

Sure enough, the brother came, and staked in the ri\'er on both sides of 
the houses. (The beavers had a lot of holes besides their houses; the beav- 
ers ran out and were caught. The beaver man who now had much of the 
nature of the beaver, told his wife to be careful, as he knew all about the 
nets having himself taken beaver in this w^ay. He showed the beaver how 
to make holes in the bank which they never knew about before.) 

At last, the brother found the holes in the bank and killed the beaver 



1911. J ■ SIdnner, The Eastern Cree. 107 

wife in one of theni. Later still, he found her husljand. He was ahnost 
changed to a beaver with hair all over his body, like one. His brother 
knew him, however, and told him he had come for him and brought clothes 
for him to wear. So the man dressed up and went home with his brother. 
When they got there, the brother gave him something to eat. 

The beaver man told him never to give him any of the meat of the female 
bea\'er to eat, for said he, " As sure as I eat a piece of the flesh of a female 
beaver, I'll turn into a beaver again, and you will ne\er be able to get me 
back to a man again." After this he lived with mankind until he died. 



The Burnixg of the World. ^ 

Once all the world was burnt. Only a man, and his mother and sister 
were saved. Of course, there were a lot of people on earth before that. 
The surviving man fell out with his father, and at last they became enemies. 
At last, the young man heard that the earth was going to be burnt, but the 
father did not belie\e it would happen. So the young man made a bow 
and arrows and shot one arrow to the west, another to the east, another to 
the sovith, and another to the north. Thus using the spots where the 
arrows fell for corners, he marked out a large square patch of land, and 
whatever wanted to be saved could come on that groimd. Some did not 
believe that the earth would be burnt. The old man and his wives and 
children did not belie\'e that the earth would burn and also refused to come. 

Sure enough, when the time came, they could hear the fire. They were 
camped by the side of a big lake. By and b}- , all the birds and animals came 
running to the patch of groimd that was marked out, as that was the only 
patch of ground that was not on fire. When the old man saw he was going 
to burn too, he tried to get to the ground that his son had marked out. His 
son would not allow him to come on because he did n't believe that this 
would happen. So he and all of his family were burnt. Even the water 
was boiling it was so hot. 

Of course, after all the fire was over, and the water was settled down again, 
there were only three people left in the world. The old man who was 
burnt only had two wives and only two children, one of whom was his son. 

After the fire was o^•er, there were lots and lots of animals on the patch 
of ground. The man named some of them. He put the beaver to live in 
the water. The rabbit wanted to be a beaver, but he would n't allow it. 
The rabbit even jumped into the water, but the man pulled him out and 

1 Rupert's HoiLse. 



108 Anlhro pological Papers American Museum of Natural History. [Vol. IX^ 

drained the water off him. He said his legs were too long and even if he 
did eat willows like a beaver, he could n't go about in the water properly. 

The squirrel wished to be a bear. He did all he could to be a bear. The 
man said he would n't do, he was too noisy. He said, " If you were a bear, 
when people got numerous again, you will get thinned down too much. 
The bear must be a very canny animal and keep quiet; he has too many 
enemies." The squirrel began to weep. He wept a great deal, until hi& 
eyes were white. If you take notice the next time you see a squirrel you 
will notice that his eyes are bright and swollen from w^eeping. The man 
made the bear then because he was nice, and quiet and canny. 

Somebody else wanted to be a deer (caribou) but I don't remember who 
it was, but the deer was put in too. The real deer was appointed because 
he was swift and could run from his enemies. After he was finished with 
the animals he put a mark on the people telling what they had to be called. 
They had to have new names after the world was burnt. 

He called his mother Robin, because she was loving, that is what he 
meant I think; he called his sister golden winged woodpecker ("flicker," 
"clape," "high-holer") because that meant she was beautiful. He called 
himself Cluih duih-kiyu, blackbird, because he meant by this he would 
only come every spring. Each of them flew away wherever they wanted to 
travel. They did not stay together but they met again. That is all of 
this story I ever heard. ^ 



Kanweo and the Cannibals.^ 

There were once two brothers. They lived well, but not upon people. 
Nearby was a tribe called Witigo (Cannibal). These people hunted in the 
ordinary manner but w^hen they could, they killed and ate men. Once, in 
the summer, when the two brothers were traveling about together, they came 
upon the Cannibals first and were able to escape. Kanweo thought he 
would return and get the things he used for war, and prepare for battle. He 
returned and told his people they would have to get ready to fight or all be 
killed. 

Kanweo began to conjure, and asked if he would be victorious if he went 
to war with the Cannibals. The spirits replied that if he had a mind to go 
he would be victorious. Kanweo at once got his people together. The 



» There are, according to the narrator, other stories about Aiacciou, the elder, who was 
burnt. 

2 Rupert's House. 



1911.] Skinner, The Eastern Cree. 109 

Cannibals always livod together. The people at once began to get their 
war spears and "sword arrows" ^ etc., together and started out. 

Kanweo prepared to attack the Cannibals slyly not intending to let 
them know before he tackled them. There was a big liill there, just at the 
back of the place where the Cannibals were staying. Iviinweo told his men 
to go up on top of this hill to watch first. He told his men, " We will watch 
to see when they are not ready and then we will attack them." 

The next day the Cannibals began to build sweat houses and he said, 
"Now is the time to go down upon them slyly." None of the Cannibals 
had anything ready. Kanweo and his men ran down and began to spear 
them as they ran out of the sweat houses. Some of the Cannibals burned 
themselves on the hot stones. It was a dreadful fight. Some of them 
escaped. Of course, he did not kill the women and children. The great 
warrior, Kanweo, was driven back towards the water where the giants 
(the Cannibals were very large, they say) were attempting to escape by 
canoes. There were two or three attacking him, but he backed away and 
fell into a canoe. He thought he was finished, but he managed to get up 
and killed all those who were attacking him. 

There was one old man, who was a chief, and his sons, among the canni- 
bals. He was not killed and was escaping with his children in the canoe. 
Kanweo saw him and ran right out in the water to him and gripped the 
head of the canoe but the water M-as too deep and he could not hold it. 
His own canoe was hidden a long way off. 

All the women and children of the Cannibals escaped. Whether there 
were any of Kanweo's party killed is not known, but a great many of the 
Cannibal giants were killed. The Kanweo stopped and went back to his 
place again. He lived there with his brother and they went about as usual. 

One winter, his brother went off to hunt in another direction. The 
brothers came upon the Cannibals again and they killed him when they 
came on him unawares. They took his wife and children alive. 

Next summer, where the brothers had appointed to meet, there was no 
sign of the brother and Kanweo learned from other Indians what had hap- 
pened to his brother. Kanweo thought to have his revenge on account of 
his brother but he did n't know where the Cannibals were. Some time after 
that he thought to himself he would try and find out. It was Avinter and 
he was living alone Avith his family. One day he was off hunting. Before 
he went off that morning he told his wife he was sure to meet somebody that 
day. He put on his oldest and worst clothes and made himself very miser- 
able lopking. Right enough, he went off that day. He was looking for 

» A "sword arrow" is one having a pointed pile, or liead, set in thie shaft. 



110 Anthropological Papers American Museum of Natural History. [Vol. IX, 

beaver, trying to find where the beaver were. He took nothing with him 
except his chisel to bore the ice. He came to a place where there were 
beaver, where the beaver were lodging. He came to a beaver house and 
cuttings near by. He looked at the house and then went down to see if 
he could find the dam where they had shut up the creek. 

As he was going along down the creek he saw someone coming up stream. 
He knew now thi.s was the man he was expecting to see. This was the old 
man who had escaped from him two or three years before in the battle 
with the Cannibals. The old man was looking for beaver too, and had 
only his chisel with him. This was the same man who had killed his brother. 
Kanweo pretended he did not see the Cannibal and the Cannibal who saw 
Kanweo did likewise. They drew together, the Cannibal thinking he would 
knock Kanweo down and kill him before Kanweo saw him. Kanweo knew 
what the Cannibal was about to do and when he approached pushed him 
away, saying, "Don't you see me? Look out where you are going." The 
Cannibal lied, and said, "Oh, I did not see you." Then they began to talk 
like friends. 

Kanweo told the old man he was looking for beaver, and the old man said 
he was doing the same. They had just met you see, at the dam, and 
Kanweo asked the old man, "Where are you thinking of going?" The old 
man replied that he thought of going where the beaver were. Kanweo 
told the old man that they would come there and chisel the beaver together 
the next day. The Cannibal said that he had three sons who would come 
along with him too. The great warrior Kanweo told the old man to tell 
his sons to cut sticks to stake in the river and when they were to carry the 
sticks down to the river they were not to wear their snowshoes but beat 
the path with their feet. After they had planned what they were going 
to do, they separated, and each went back to his own place. 

When Kanweo came home, he had some dry beaver outside his tent 
and he took four in with him and told his wife to cook them. He said, 
"We must try to finish all that beaver to-night." He was making a feast 
so that he might be prosperous to kill his enemy. " We must try to finish 
these before daylight," he told her after they were cooked. 

He told his family that he had met someone and they had planned to 
chisel beaver together. He told them they might come, but not with him. 
They began to feast. He told them if they managed to finish the feast 
they might be able to overcome the enemy. 

Next morning, he got out his war tools, his spear, etc., and went off, his 
family following behind. He told them to make camp at a certain place 
that he would mark which was not close to where he was going to have the 
battle. Kanweo went there first, before the rest, where the beaver were. 



1911.] Skintier, The Easlern Cree. Ill 

He mai'ked the creek where they were gonig to stake it in. Tlien he saw 
the old man coming with his sons. When the sons saw him they said to 
their father, " We are sure that man must he the one caUed Kiinweo who 
used to fight with us." They were afraid, for they knew he had some- 
thing against them as they had killed his brother and lield his wife a 
prisoner. 

Kanweo was in charge of the bea\er. He told the young men where 
to go to cut the sticks. He told them to leave their snowshoes down by 
the creek and beat the path in their moccasins, so they would not make much 
noise. Then he said to the old man, "W^e'll chisel the ice, make a trench 
right across the ice to put down the sticks." Kanweo had a chisel with a 
blade at each end, that he could turn as he liked to see which chisel was 
sharpest. The old man was chiseling and Kanweo told him to make the 
hole big in one place in the middle of the river where they were to set the 
net. Kiinweo Mould turn his chisel now and again to see which end was 
sharper. 

p]very time Kanweo would turn his chisel the old man was afraid and 
would jmnp. "You seem to be afraid," said Kanweo, "every time I turn 
my chisel." " Oh, no," said the old man, " I 'm not afraid, but I very nearly 
slipped." At last, they had the hole big enough, and Kanweo told the old 
man to skim the ice out of the hole. The old man sat down on his knees 
to do this and Kanweo knew that the hole was big enough. All at once, 
when the old man was not thinking, Kanweo stabbed him in the l)ack, with 
his chisel and threw him under the water. The old man managed, howe\er, 
to give a shout as he was going under, and the young men, who were cutting- 
sticks heard it. The old man struggled beneath the ice for a moment, 
and very nearly burst the ice through it was so thick. When Kiinweo saw 
the old man was killed, he took his bow and arrow. 

The young men came rimning to the creek when they heard their father 
call. Kanweo took his bow and arrow and shot at the young men when 
they tried to escape. He killed two when they were putting on their snow- 
shoes, but the third got his snowshoes on. Kiinweo, however, managed 
to shoot him before he got very far. The family of Kiinweo soon came up 
and soon after came the Cannibal's family. When they heard that the old 
man was dead, they began to cry, but Kiinweo did not harm them. At 
last, the old man's wife came up, but when she saw the others crying, she 
refused to believe her Inisband was dead, for she d'ul not bcli(>\e any one 
could overcome him. 

Kiinweo told her to come and see tlic old man's body wliieli Kiinweo 
had pulled to the hole they had made. He was not on the ice but his head 
was out of the water. Kiinweo used liis bodv as one of the stakes to shut 



112 Anthropological Papers American Museum of Natural History. [Vol. IX, 

up the creek. Then the old woman believed and became angry. She 
attempted to make an end of Kiinw eo. She got her big ax off the sled and 
was going to kill him with that. Of course, Kanweo knocked her ax away, 
and he took her ax from her and knocked her down. He told her she had 
to die, and with the same ax with which she wanted to strike him he 
struck her and killed her. 

Kiinweo's sister-in-law was there, a prisoner, and she wanted to come and 
live with him. She did n't want to stay with them any more. Kanweo 
would not allow her to come. "I've heard," he said, "you helped them kill 
your husband. I don't want to have anything more to do with you." 
He let the other go and she had to return with them. That is the end of 
this story. 

Origin of the Races of Man.^ 

When the "Great Spirit" decided to make man, he i)uilt an oven, and 
having moulded a man of clay, he put him in to bake. He was not baked 
enough and came out white. He tried again but this time the clay was 
baked too long, and came out black, and the negro was the result. He tried 
a third time, and behold he had a perfect man, an Indian, " baked just right." 
This is why the \arious races of people have different colors. 



The Wolf and the Otter.^ 

Once a female otter was coming out of her hole in the day time. A long 
way off, opposite the mouth of the burrow, she saw Wolf approaching, 
" Hai," she called, and Wolf stopped and looked. " Hello," said he. " What 
is that you are holding behind you?" asked Otter. "That is my tenting," 
replied Wolf. "Hai, that is your dirty stinking tail you are holding." 
"Hai, Otter," said Wolf, "if you don't mind how you talk to me, I'll break 
up your holes." "Not you, I've got a lot of holes, you cannot break them 
all." Then Otter ran in under the ground singing in the otter language, 
which is said to resemble Ojibway. 
"Tcukawan nipekau mewa " 

There are a lot of holes. 
"Tcukawan nipekau mewa." 
" Tcukawan nipekau mewa." 
Until he was out of sight. 



» Obtained from Rev. Robert Rennison, Episcopal missionary at Moose Factory, who 
in turn collected it from old Chief Solomon, an Albany Cree. It is said to be a well-known 
Albany Cree story. 

2 Albany Cree. 



1911.] Skinner, The Eastern Cree. 113 

Then Wolf came up and broke up tlie first hole. Tlien he saw the second 
hole and broke that. Then he saw the third anfl broke that. Meanwhile, 
the water was freezing and Otter could not come up. Then Wolf broke 
all the holes but the last one. WTien he came to this one, Otter came up 
and cried, "Ha^•e mercy and I will marry you." Wolf bit Otter's head 
off and killed her. 

The Legend of Stag Rock.^ 

A giant was once hunting a mythical big beaver up the Nottoway River. 
The beaver escaped down the river, so he followed it. It fled faster than 
he could keep up with it as he ran along the shore. At last, the beaver 
gained so much on the giant that it left him out of sight. \Mien, however, 
he reached the mouth of the river he could see the beaver swimming away 
in the distance out in James Bay. He realized that he could not possibly 
catch it and this made him so angry that he seized a great rock and hurled 
it at his quarry. It fell short, however, but landed with a great splash 
in the water, where it (Stag Rock) may yet be seen. 



The Stars that IMarried Sisters- 
Two stars, large and bright, married two sisters. The girls were \ery 
unhappy however, since they only saw their husbands at night and never 
in the day time. (These stars can be identified, but the narrator did not 
know them.) 

A Conjuring Story.^ 

My grandfather, who is now dead, claimed to have once killed a man by 
conjuring. He drove the geese from No Man's Land to East River, by 
magic. While he was doing this, he sat in his canoe. A voice spoke to 
him, and said, "Look out, there is a stranger coming." Instantly, a little 
bird dropped on his breast and he became imconscious. ^^Tlen he came 
to, two men were working over him. He took up the bird. There was mud. 



1 Moose and Rupert's House Cree. Stag rock is a large roekj- island which is promi- 
nently situated in James Bay not far from the mouth of the Nottoway (Iroquois) River off 
the East Coast. 

- Rupert's House Cree, a fragment. 

3 Tales of personal prowess as conjurors are in great favor among the Eastern Cree^ 
where with himting and animal stories ranking second, they seem to take the place of the 
martial stories of the Plains and Woodlands. Wliile verj' abundant aud popular, one is here 
given as it is typical enough to give an idea of all those heard It is from the Albany Cree. 



114 Anthropological Papers American Museum of Natural History. [Vol. IX, 

He knew at once it came from Osnabiirg (a Hudson's Bay Company Post), 
and who sent it. He placed more mud on it and sent it back. Next 
spring lie heard the man who had sent it was dead. 



The Cannibals.^ 

Once there was an old man and his son who used to go about killing and 
eating people. At last, they came to one family who was very poor and 
was star\ing. Then the young man said, "Father, I'll stay here and go 
off and hunt for the people. We will fatten tliem up and kill them." His 
father said it was well. The yoimg man hunted for three days and all the 
deer's meat he got he gave to those people. He stayed with them for a 
week. One da}^ he went off and foimd his father. He told him he had 
seen a big tent full of people which he had not entered. His father said, 
"We will go to-morrow morning to see them." The young man told the 
people he was living with that they were to eat heartily and grow fat. 
"We will come once a week to see you and how you are getting along." 

They went away then, the father and son, and camped close to the big 
tent. They did not approach it until night when everyone was asleep. 
Then they killed half of the people and ate them. The rest escaped. The 
two cannibals stayed at the same place. The man they left kept on eating 
and drying the meat they gave him. Once a week the old cannibal visited 
him and saw that he and his wife and children were growing fat. 

Now the man became afraid. He continued to dry meat as before, Init 
he dug a hole under the snow for he knew that the cannibals were fattening 
him in order to kill him. The next week, the old man came. "You are 
getting fat now," he said. "Next week my son and I will visit you again." 
"All night, I'll be here," said the man and all that week he collected 
dry meat and wood and snow to make water. Then he barricaded the 
door with brush. He took in his drum and sang and thumped all night 
praj'ing for bad weather. The \ery first morning a heavy snow-storm fell 
covering his fort completely. The next night the man conjured again for 
rain to make a hard crust over the snow. It came, and then he conjured 
for more snow drifts. Again, the snow fell and he was covered over as hard 
as a rock where he was hidden. The time for the next visit of the cannibals 
was now at hand. When they came they could not find him. 

The old cannibal dug a hole in the snow to seek them for he knew from 
his medicine that they must be near by. He could not find them although 



1 Albany Cree. 



1911.] Skinner, The Eastern Cree. 115 

he and his son were rii;ht oxer their \ictiins. Then the eannihal people left 
the place and went off in the opposite direction. The Indians stayed in the 
snow tnitil the spring thaws released them. The cannibals soon found 
another family where there were two grown-iip sons whose medicine was 
very strong. These two sons knew })efore the cannibals came that they 
were approaching and one hid on the river bank and the other in the brush. 
Sure enough, the two cannibals came in the night along the river. " There 
are strangers coming," he called out. At once the cannibal and his son 
fell on the snow and lay there hidden intending to make an unexpected 
attack late that night. They were surprised for they did not think anyone 
was waiting for them. Then the other brother went out and both went to 
see the two cannibals. They said to the strangers, "You are just in time 
to help us chisel l)eaver." Then the old man said, "I am too old to chisel 
l)ea^-er but my son can go with you, I'll stay in the tent." So then the 
three went to a lake. There were no beaver there at all. They all sat on 
the edge of the lake. 

The youngest brother said, "Let us make a big hole in the ice in the 
middle of the lake. Then we will have a A\Testling match, and whoever gets 
worsted, will be thrown into the hole and drowned. They had no axes or 
anything but a sharpened caribou leg bone ti'fed on a stick for a chisel. The 
two brothers began to chisel and the cannibal sat and looked on. "]\Iake 
it big, narrow and long, just the length of a man, so that when you throw a 
man, he'll just go in," said he. The two Indians did as they were told. 
Then the two brothers said slyly to each other, "^^^lo'll try him first?" 
"I will," said the youngest. "You can't master him," said the older. 
" I will try any way," said the younger. " We are all ready now," said they 
to the cannibal at last. The young cannibal jumped up. The younger 
brother tried twice to tlu-ow the cannibal but could not put him in the hole. 
"Let me try," said the older. So they threw" the cannibal in the hole and 
the younger brother struck him with his ice chisel as he went doi^Ti and he 
was Idlled. Then they went back. They had a war club. The old man 
was sitting with his legs crossed. They struck his legs and broke them with 
a single blow. Then they said, "We have killed your son." Then they 
killed him too. 

The Legend of Iroquois Falls. 

Xistupuhom, Iroquois Falls, a war party of Iroquois ^ attacked and 
killed the Cree. They took one woman prisoner for a guide. They asked 
her if they could run a rapid and she said that she could. At Iroquois Falls 



Notohoweyo. "men coming to us by water in canoes." 



116 Anthropological Papers American Museum of Xatural History, [^'ol. IX 

she told them that they could shoot it. if the women and goods were taken 
out to hghten the canoe. They let her out and when she arri\ed at the 
other end of the portage they set otit. She saw them try to escape when 
they saw the dangerous spot bnt tliey could not. They heailed their canoe 
towards the falls and sang their war songs. They were all drowneii. One 
tried to escape from an eddy, and the woman shoved him out when he tried 
to land and he drowneti. 



11. THE XORTHERX SAULTEAUX. 

The Ojilnvay Indians are one of the best known and most Avidely dis- 
tributed tribes of the Algonkin stock. The territory over which they 
formerly' roamed extended from the X'iagara River on the east to the 
neigliborhood of Central ]Montana on the west, and from the northern part 
of Wisconsin and Michigan north about half way to Hudson's Bay. They 
may be divided into several distinct bands, differing considerably both 
culturally and dialectically. They all probably spring from a common 
base, perhaps somewhere southwest of Lake Superior whence they have 
radiated in every direction except southward. As this paper is intended to 
deal primarily w'ith but a small portion of this people, occupying a definite 
area, further discussion of their origin and number, may be dispensed with, 
with the exception of an enumeration of the great divisions of the Ojibway 
and a few^ remarks on some of their peculiarities : — 

1. The Ojibway proper, closely related to the central Algonkin, occupy- 
ing ^Minnesota, Xorthern Wisconsin, and Upper Michigan. A semi-nomadic 
hunting and fishing people, possessed of some agriculture, wdld rice gatherers, 
builders of bark houses, as well as of conical wigwams, warlike.^ 

2. The Chippewa of lower Michigan and Southeastern Ontario, more 
sedentary in their habits, agricultural, build bark cabins, once possessors 
of a false face ceremony possibly derived from the Iroquois,^ probably con- 
siderably under Huron-Iroquois influence, warlike.' 

3. The Southern Saulteaux inhabiting the north shore of Lake Superior, 
allied in habits with the Ojibway proper, non-agricultural, non-warlike 
dwellers for the most part in conical w^igwams, nomadic, scaffold burials, 
sometimes cannibalistic when under provocation. 

4. The X^orthern Saulteaux are an off-shoot of the former who have 
lost many southern traits and have acquired others from the Eastern Cree, 
very often cannibalistic in times of scarcity, subterreanean burials. 

o. The Plains Saulteaux, or "Long Plains Ojibway," dwell west of 
Lake Winnipeg, information lacking, but probably like the X'orthern Plains 
Algonkin. 

As will be seen, the X'orthern Saulteaux form the most isolated band of 



1 Jones, (b), 36. 

2 The writer's mother when a child once saw a dance or ceremony of the IVIissisauga 
in which masks were worn. These masks were made of deerskin, and their eyes and mouths 
were bound with red flannel. This was at Owen Sound on Georgian Bay, Lake Huron. 

' Jones, Peter 138. 



lis Antlvopological Papers American Museum of Naiural History. [Vol. IX, 

the Ojibway. They occupy the region north of Lake Superior and east 
of Lake Winnipeg congregating at the Hudson's Bay Company Posts of 
Lac Seul, Osnaburgh House on Lake St. Joseph, Fort Hope on Lake Eabamet 
with its outposts at Webique and the headwaters of the Attiwapiscat, 
Martens Falls on the Albany, and Mamiimatau, or English River Post. 
Possibly the Indians at New Post and Lake Abittibi also belong to this 
division. Owing to outside influences, it can hardly be said that they 
present the most typical examples at the first and last-named places. 

The Northern Saulteaux call themselves "Otcipweo" and recognize no 
difference between their division and the other bands. They are non-war- 
like and have always been on terms of intimacy with the Europeans and the 
Cree. They remember that the Sioux used to raid their territory, descend- 
ing the Albany River they claim, to the Cree country. Perhaps however, 
they refer to the Iroquois who also attacked them and were more given to 
such extended raids. 

The mmiber of the Northern Saulteaux on the Government annuity 
rolls is: — Lac Seul, 800; Fort Hope,^ 550; Martens Falls, 112; English 
River, 65, making a total of 1527. 

Near the Canadian Pacific Railroad and for some distance northward, 
the more southern Saulteaux may be encountered. They are markedly 
different in physical appearance from those of the northern interior. Most 
of them are tall and well built, appear more intelligent, and look and act 
more like the Indians of whom we are accustomed to think. Perhaps, it is 
owing to the hard physical conditions encountered by the northern bands, 
that the;\' appear for the most part short, squat, and stunted. They are 
not particularly intelligent, nor do they present the more general and char- 
acteristic aquiline features of the southern bands. They are dark in com- 
plexion, so much so that the Eastern Cree look positively pale beside them 
and one may at once pick out a wandering Cree among their bands or vice 
versa. Their personal habits are far more filth^,' than those of the Cree; but 
they are perhaps a shade more moral. Sanitation even of the simplest kind 
is absolutely unknown and any infectious disease, such as smallpox or 
syphilis would sweep them away in short order. 

1 Eighty died during the La Grippe epidemic of 1908-9. 



1911.] Skinne7-, The NoriJtern SauUeaux. 119 



HABTTATIOXS. 

Three general types of lotJges are in use among the Saulteaux. They 
are the round or dome-shapetl, the conical, and the rectangular "pent roof" 
forms. The first of these is quite common. The foundation is made of 
a number of poles or saplings arched over and bent down to the ground. 
The first sapling is bent over, say from east to west, and the others cross it 
from north to soutli. Others are bent over these, the size of the arc decreas- 
ing towards the outside with each sapling put in place. This framework 
is covered with birchbark or brush. A fireplace about six inches high and 
two feet square is built of stone in the center of the lodge and a hole is made 
in the roof immediately over it to emit the smoke. 

The Conical Lodge. In building the conical lodge the number of poles 
is not fixed nor is there any taboo against counting them during their erec- 
tion as among the Eastern Cree. The foundation is of four poles crotched 
at one end. The crotches are placed together and the poles made to stand 
without tying. When crotched sticks cannot be obtained, the poles are 
lashed together. After the foundation has been erected, other poles are 
placed about them until the complete wigwam frame is made. In former 
times, this skeleton was often covered with skins, but unlike the Cree, the 
Northern Saulteaux never decorated them with painted designs. Birch- 
bark is frequently used as a roofing for lodges of this type although it is 
being superseded by canvas. The bark is cut from the trees in long strips. 
These are fastened together with willow roots to form long rolls and sticks 
are sewed across the ends to prevent the bark from splitting. Several 
rolls are required to cover a lodge, the nvmiber varying according to the size 
desired. The bark is occasionally decorated by dyeing and scratching 
parallel bands of light and dark upon it. The apex of the frame of the 
conical lodge is usually left bare of the bark in order that the smoke may 
escape but the upper roll usually has a long pole attached to each end and 
reaching to the ground, so that if rain sets in the inhabitants may go out 
and close the smoke hole to prevent the rain from entering. These poles 
are known as the "ears" of the lodge. 

After the covering has been placed, more poles are usually laid over it 
to hold it down. While traveling from Lac Seul to Lake St. Joseph, the 
writer observed a wooden wigwam in a deserted winter camp. It was 
conical in shape and smaller in size than most of the ordinary lodges seen 
and was built of split poles set on end, the chinks being closed with moss. 

In the dome-shaped and conical lodges, the place of honor for a guest 
was called "wekwondes(>n", or "the center of the side", and was at the back 



120 Anthropological Papers American Museum of Natural History. [Vol. IX, 

of the lodge opposite the door, and as far away from it as possible. There 
seem to be no technical names for other parts of the lodge. The so-called 
tent-shaped, or two-fire house, was a more pretentious affair than the pre- 
ceding types, and resembled the long houses of the East. This form had 
rectangular sides and a triangular roof. The foundation was built of poles 
lashed together. It was covered with bark or brush and had a door, a fire- 
place, and a smoke hole at each end. The place of honor was on either side 
in the middle and as far from the doors as possible. Four families lived in 
such a house, one in each corner. It was considered a breach of ^ood man- 
ners for a member of any family to enter or leave by the door opposite his 
end or even to step over the imaginary line which set off the space occupied 
by each family. There were no partitions, and the occupied corners were 
not marked off. 

Adherence to the rules concerning the imaginary boundaries was very 
strict. In a typical lodge where four families resided, a man dwelling in 
one end on his return from a hunting trip, must proceed to the end of the 
lodge where he lived and whence he made his exit, even though he first 
came to the opposite end of the house and convenience pointed it out as his 
natural place of entrance. "While nothing definite in regard to these divi- 
sions, as based on clan or totemic differences of the inhabitants, could be 
learned, it was admitted that the occupants of a two-fire house were gener- 
ally four related families. The two families dwelling in one end and using 
a door and fireplace in common were usually in closer touch socially; but 
this did not prevent a strong resentment being shown towards any one who 
even accidentally stepped over the boundary. Probably this rule could be 
abrogated by permission of the others, but the enforced entrance of the 
lodge of each family by its own door was immutable. Skins were used as 
doors. These were fastened to the upper part of the door opening and 
weighted at the bottom with a stick which kept them from blowing about. 
When skins were scarce, mats of woven reeds or cedar bark, took their 
place. In a two-fire lodge, if meat was obtained, it was smoked on a 
scaffold over one of the two fires. 

Sweating Lodge or Sudaiory. Though properly belonging here, the 
sweating lodge or sudatory will be described elsewhere. It was built like 
the conjuring lodge and made as air-tight as possible. A detailed account 
will be found under the head of medical practices (p. 161). 

Conjuring Houses. The house used by the conjuror was of the dome- 
shaped type and differed from the ordinary dwelling in that it had neither 
a door nor a smoke hole. In former times, during the biennial ceremonies 
of the midewin, a booth of willows and brush, oval in shape and without a 
roof was built for the ceremony but no good description of this could be 
obtained. 



1911.] Skinner, The Xorthern Saulteaux. 121 



CLOTHING AND TOILETTES. 

It is apparent that a considerable change in the style of clothing has 
come about since the advent of the more northern bands into the region 
they now occupy. From Lac Seul southward into ^Minnesota, the old time 
man's clothing was made of smoked tanned buckskin, caribou, and occa- 
sional woven rabbitskin coats and hoods. The costume consisted of plain 
moccasins, skin-tight leggings with a fringe nmning along the seam down 
the outside of the leg. In some cases, instead of a leather fringe dangling 
feathers were used for this purpose. A breechclout was worn but the shirt 
was not used. The clout was often ornamented with porcupine quills, 
which were generally dyed blue. A leather cap, conical in shape and hang- 
ing down in a flap over the neck, completed the costume. Some of these 
caps had a draw string under the chin to hold them in place. The winter 
dress was the same as that worn in summer except that a coat and mittens 
of woven rabbitskin were added to the costume. 

In summer, the women wore a single piece sleeveless dress of leather. 
It was shaped somewhat like the skin garments of the Indian women of the 
Plains and extended from the shoulders to below the knees. It was held up 
by a string over the shoulders, and was low-necked in front. The sleeves 
were separate pieces, fastened on by thongs in front and the rear, which were 
tied together across the back and chest. They were larger at the shoulder 
than at the wrist. A belt of skin went about the waist. Typical short 
squaw leggings were bound on below the knee, and these, with moccasins 
completed the outfit. Wrist bands of otter, mink, or muskrat skin are some- 
times worn. This is also true of the northern bands. 

Like the men, for winter wear, the women added a rabbitskin coat 
reaching to the waist with a separate hood and mittens of the same material. 
Sometimes, in lieu of a coat, a small rabbitskin blanket was fastened, like a 
cape, around the shoulders. 

The clothing of the children was the same as that of adults except, of 
course, in regard to size. A custom also found by the writer among the 
Delaware, Irocjuois, and ^Yinnebago was noted. Holes made in the soles 
of moccasins of very young children were explained as follows: — As a young 
child recently born is fresh from the spirit land it is very likely to be enticed 
to come back by the spirits (to die). If however, the holes are cut in the 
soles of the shoes, it is obliged to tell the spirits that its moccasins are in no 
condition for it to journey over the long road which separates the present 
from the hereafter. 



122 Anihropologicnl Papers American Museum of Natural History. [\'ol. IX, 

North of Lac Seul, from Lake St. Joseph to the headwaters of the 
Attawapiscat and Martens P'alls on the Albany, a decided change was 
apparent in the clothing of the men. In both winter and summer, the man's 
costume consisted of skin-tight fringeless leggings, breechclout, coat, and 
separate hood of rabbitskins. In the winter, mittens and moccasins of the 
same material were sometimes added, but the latter were only worn for 
special piu'poses. The woman's costume was the same as that worn by the 
more southern bands. The women sometimes wore, in winter, a skirt of 
rabbitskin, presumably made by lapping a rabbitskin blanket around the 
waist and allowing it to fall o\er a belt, open in front or at one side. A hood 
of the same material and a coat of marten or lynx skins with the fur inside 
was sometimes added. 

The writer believes that this variation in costume may be explained by 
the fact that when the Saulteaux pushed forward into the northern area 
where they may now be found, the exigencies of the colder climate required 
a warmer type of clothing, at least for the men, who were obliged to spend 
the greater part of their time out-of-doors hunting during the winter season. 
The women, on the contrary, who remained in the wigwam most of the 
time did not find such a change of clothing necessary and the old skin 
garments were more largely retained. This seems to be borne out by the 
fact that on Lake St. Joseph, where rabbitskin garments were formerly 
worn both in summer and winter b}^ the Saulteaux, costumes of 
buckskin were dimly remembered by the older men. Another interesting- 
fact, further brought out by investigation among Eastern Cree, is that when 
the Northern Saulteaux first met them (south of Fort Albany in all proba- 
bility) the latter only manufactured blankets, coats, and hoods of rabbit- 
skin. The Ojibway learned this art from them and proceeded to invent 
leggings, clouts, and moccasins of the same material which w^ere in turn 
copied from them by the Albanj^ Cree among whom these articles may still 
occasionally be found although the Cree of Eastmain and Rupert's House 
and possibly of INIoose Fort did not know of these garments. 

Conservatism in costume prevails among children. One may often see 
them wearing old-fashioned garments when the adults have entirely dis- 
carded them. 

After the advent of the Europeans, the introduction of strouds, duffels, 
silks, and beads altered conditions considerably. At first, the Indian type 
of dress was largely adhered to and the cloth, which was generally blue or 
Avhite strouds was cut after the fashion of the older garments. Leggings 
were shaped like trousers, but broad at the top and narrow at the bottom, 
and sometimes beaded or ornamented. Breechclouts, blankets, capotes, 
(no shirts), and angular beaded caps became the style for men. Garters, 



1911. 



Skinner, The Northern SaitUeaux. 



123 



usually beaded or ornamented, were fastened below the knee on the outside 
more for appearance than for use. The women wore dresses of strouds 
made after the old. style with separate sleeves and belts. Their leggings 
were also cut after the former fashion but were heavily beaded along the 
bottom. Almost all clothing, both of the ancient and the transition period 
has been discarded, with the exception of occasional rabbitskin costumes 
which are still worn by invalids, or during winter by healthy persons. 
Nowadays, both men and women wear European clothing purchased from 
the traders, often ill-fitting or loudly colored. Beadwork is poor and scarce 
and porcupine quill work has been utterly discarded. In former times, 
some of the northern bands in contact with the Eastern Cree, like them, 
kept special clothes for warlike purposes; but the more southern bands 
used old clothes for going to war so that their best garments might not fall 
into the hands of the enemy. 

In concluding, no description of the costume of the Saulteaux is complete 
without some special reference to the several styles of moccasins known 




Fig. 41 n (50-4806), 
Saiilteaux IMoccasins. 



b (50-79S.3), c (50-7967), d (50-8073), « (50-1939). Types of 



among them. Forraerh', moccasins known as "wolverene shoes" were 
worn (Fig. 41e). These did not possess the seam over the toe, and the varnp 
was much larger than that now used. Like the other old stj^les they were 
without ornamentation. Another ancient tj-pe, now obsolete, had flaps 
at the anlde (Fig. 41a) and a seam over the instep from toe to sole. Another 
low, summer form (Fig. 41b) was like the common modern type but lacked 
the vamp, and ankle flaps. When caribou, moose, or buckskin was not to 
be obtained, moccasins of sturgeon skin (Fig. 41c) were sometimes used as 
makeshifts. In winter, Avhen traveling over bare and slippery ice, shoes 
made of woven rabbitskin were worn. These differ in shape from those 
used by the Eastern Cree. 

Nowadays, the Saulteaux wear the modern variety (Fig. 41d) of which a 



124 Anthropological Papers American Museum of Natural History. [Vol. IX^ 

number of specimens were collected. These are made in both high and low 
styles. The seam runs from the toe over the instep to the vamp which is 
usually decorated. The ankle flap is adorned with beads or quills. Some 
tj'pes have a high flap at the ankle bound above, if with thongs. This is 
made either of leather or of cloth and perhaps this type was derived from the 
Cree since they claim it as aboriginal. 

It will be observed, that unlike the tribes farther to the south and north, 
the Saulteaux clothing was entirely utilitarian and no attempt was made to 
render it beautiful. 

Method of Wearing the Hair. At the present time, the women generally 
wear the hair in a braid down the back, but some prefer two braids. When 
two braids are worn they are usually brought forward over the shoulders 
and allowed to hang over the breasts. The hair is sometimes, although 
rarely, worn loose and flowing, caught at the nape of the neck with a thong 
or bit of twine. Some form the hair into two tight braids and coil them flat 
in a sort of mat on the back of the head. The head is often co^•ered with 
a silk handkerchief knotted under the chin, but the women V)y no means 
cover their heads as frequently as do the Eastern Cree. The Saulteaux 
women are also said to eradicate their pubic hair. 

In former times, the men permitted their hair to hang loose. Now, 
they usually cut it like the Europeans, or crop it at the shoulders. In the 
latter case, a snake skin is sometimes bound about the brows, like a fillet, or 
a handkerchief is placed over the head and knotted at the corners like a 
skull cap. Scalplocks never seem to have been cultivated. Beards and 
mustaches are common, even among full-bloods. They are prized because 
they heighten the wearer's resemblance to a European. 

Personal Ornamentation. Unlike the Eastern Cree, who formerly 
practised both tattooing and scarification for the purposes of adornment, 
the Saulteaux claim that they never used this form of decoration and had 
only facial and perhaps body paintings. The writer observed an old woman 
at Fort Hope who had a simple bilaterally symmetrical cross tattooed on 
each cheek, as a charm against toothache and headache, and learned that 
similar symbols were placed on the legs and wrists to ward off rheumatism. 
This may be a custom which found its origin in the teachings of the Roman 
Catholic missionaries who have a church at this post, rather than a purely 
aboriginal idea. Tattooing was performed by charring birchbark or wood 
and rubbing it on a thread which is fastened to a needle and the design 
i ewed under the skin, the pigment making it permanent. Abitci-ininis, an 
old man residing at Dinorwic stated that facial paintings were generally 
used by young men to attract the attention of the women, and not for war- 
like purposes. These figures were continually renewed until they answered 



1911.] Skinner, The Northern SnnUeaux. 125 

the purpose of a permanent design. They were generally done in red, which 
was the favorite color for the purpose. The paint was obtained from the 
hematite iron ore common in that vicinity. No further information in 
this regard was obtainable among the more northern bands, save that 
ceremonial paintings, other than for warlike purposes were once common. 
Labrets were unknown to the Northern Saulteaux. Nose rings are of 
recent date, having been introduced when the Hudson's Bay Company 
placed metallic rings suitable for this purpose within the reach of the 
Indians. The custom is now obsolete. When earrings were worn, the 
ears were pierced, or rather slit, by holding the ear against a block of wood 
and cutting along the cartilaginous outer rim for an inch or more with a 
piece of sharp flint. When the openings were healed, pieces of marten skin 
were suspended through them. 



MANUFACTURES. 

Tanning. Among the Saulteaux, the process of tanning both with and 
without the hair is practically the same. After the animal has been killed, 
the skin is first fleshed with a bone flesher (Fig. 42). This implement is 
usually made of a leg bone of the caribou or moose, and is usually untoothed; 




Fig. 42 (.50-7458). Cree skinning Tool.' 

although serrated fleshers are considered to be better implements for the 
purpose, for some reason the smooth implement is the most favored. In 
fleshing, the scraper is held in the hand with the edge towards the user. 

1 By mistake of the Editor, the wrong specimen was taken for this drawing. However, 
the Saulteaux flesher is of the same general form with a wedge or chisel-like edge, but a 
portion of the joint remains on one specimen in the collection, quite similar to Fig. 34d, 
Vol. V, 69, a widely distributed Plains type. As this joint seems to serve no practical pur- 
pose its occurrence among the Saulteaux and not among (he Eastern Cree, suggests cul- 
tural contact with Plains tribes. — Ed. 



126 Anthropological Papers American Museum of Natural History. [Vol. IX^ 

The implement is struck with a downward motion to remove the fat and 
meat. 

If leather is to be made, the skin is next drawn over a stick set obliquely 
in the ground with the elevated end towards the user. The bark is removed 
from the upper part where the skin is placed and the wood is carefully 
smoothed down. The skin is then drawn taut over this surface and a 
beaming tool, made from the leg bone of one of the ruminants, is brought 
to bear on it. It is held like a draw shave and is pushed away from the 
body against the grain of the skin. This part of the process is carried on 
as far as possible from the wigwam on account of the litter made by the 
hair when it is removed. In passing, it may be said, that in this process, 
both men and women do the work. There seems to be little or no division 
of work by sex among these people. 

After the hair has been removed, the skin is rubbed thoroughly with 
brains and grease. This composition is made of animal brains of any kind 




Fig. 43 (50-7937). A Beaming Tool. 

cooked and mixed with grease which may be kept indefinitely in a liquid 
state in a pot or kettle. After the brains have been rubbed in, the skin is 
dried before the fire. Then it is soaked in water for a time and again dried. 
During the drying process, it is pulled by two people in order to make it 
pliable. After this the skin is sewed in the shape of a bag and smoked. 
It is suspended from the middle of a pole frame made by arching over two 
sticks, or from a tripod. It is swung with the open end downwards and 
under this is hung a small pot or kettle containing rotten wood or punk. 
This is ignited and smoke is made but no flame is allowed to form. The 
open end of the skin bag is protected from injury from the fire by a band of 
cloth sewed about it. Skins are rarely tanned in summer; unless the 
hunter's lodge and tools are near at hand. For tanning with the hair, the 
process is the same, except that after the skin is scraped, the beaming tool 
is not used. Bear skins are stretched but are never tanned nor are the furs 
gathered for trade, cured except by scraping and drying. 

Sturgeon skin to be used for moccasin-making and other purposes is 
removed and dried. It is kept in this condition indefinitely. When w-anted 
for use it is soaked in water to render it pliable. 



1911. 



Skiruier, The Xorthern Saidleaux. 



127 




Fig. 44 (50-7977). 
Needle and Tliread. 



Weaving and Sewing. The more southern Saulteaux used thorns for 
needles, the eyes of which were pierced by burning. The northern branch 
used the penis bone of the marten, which has a natural 
perforation and needs only sharpening for use. By 
preference sinew is used for thread and was obtained 
in several ways from various animals. The tendons of 
the wings of partridge and ptarmigan were drawn out 
and spliced together and furnished good thread or 
snare twine. Sewing sinew is also obtained from the 
tail of the beaver, fox, muskrat, and fisher, where it is 
very fine and long, and from the back of the caribou, 
moose, and deer, where it is taken from an area between 
the shoulder and the rump on either side of the spine. 
From these animals it comes in fibrous pieces varying 
in length according to the size and species of the ani- 
mal, and an inch or more broad. AMien sinew cannot 
be obtained the bark or roots of certain species of 
willow is twisted and shredded by rolling on the thigh with the palm of the 
hand. Two thin shreds or fibers of willow bark are sometimes twisted 
together by rolling between the fingers to serve as twine. For sewing 
birchbark, spruce root (watap) is used. This is split into the proper size 
and boiled until it is flexible. Bark is sewed in making vessels or canoe? 

by punching holes with an awl 
and forcing the roots through 
with the fingers. 

Mats are made from the in- 
ner bark of cedar or from bull- 
rushes. These are plaited with 
the fingers. Owing to the fact 
that cheap Japanese matting 
has long been within the reach 
of the Saulteaux at the posts, 
the manufacture of tliese mats 
has practically been given up 
and we were unable to obtain 
any information about them. 
They are not now found north 
of Lac Seul. Mats made of bundles of straw (Fig. 45) sewed together 
were formerly common. Like the rush and bark mats, these were formerly 
placed on the floor of the lodge to sit or recline upon. At Martens Falls 
Post, caribou skins, tanned with the hair, take the place of floor mats. 




45 (50-794S). Detail of a Straw ]\Iat. 



128 Anthropological Papers American Museum of Xatural Histori/. [Vol. IX, 

Fabrics and woven bags are unknown, althougli the Saulteaux may have 
had them when they entered the country. The Indians at Lac Seul still 
occasionally make splint baskets. No notes were obtained and no one 
could be found who knew the process although it was said that some old 
women were able to make them. Owing to the fact that birchbark is 
abundant and much more easily worked, baskets of this material are more 
common. 

Birchbark is removed from the trees about the first of July, when it 
begins to peel properly. Decorations are sometimes scratched on utensils 
as may be seen on several of the specimens. In making these designs, the 




Fig. 46 (50-747SJ. A Bag of Cedar Bark. 

motive is first scratched on and then the background or unscratched part 
is rubbed with boiled black willow bark which dyes it a dark orange. Bags 
(Fig. 46) are sometimes woven with the fingers out of strips of bark and 
netted carrying bags like those found among the Eastern Cree also occur. 
The latter are usually made from moose hide thongs. A description of the 
manufacture of rabbitskin blankets will be found among the notes on the 
Eastern Cree (p. 35). The process is identical among the two peoples 
except in a few minor details. 

Nets, which some of the Saulteaux say were not aboriginal, but European 
in their origin, are woven with the wooden netting needle, and are similar to 
those found among the Eastern Cree. A needle of larger size is used to 
make the border. Snowshoe nets are woven with bone or wooden needles. 
Babiche is used for the web but when it is scarce, strips of sturgeon skin or 



1911. 



Skinner, The Northern Saulleaux. 



129 



even l)ark are used. Woven pack straps are not used among these people 
who preferred those made of leather. 

One of the most unique and interesting specimens obtained among the 
Northern Saulteaux is the basket shown in Fig. 47. This is an unusually 
well made basket shaped like a bushel measure and of nearly the same size. 
The technique is of the one rod coil, open texture \ariety, rare in North 
America, except among the Central California people, especially the Modoc. 
The turns of the brown spruce root binding element are about half an inch 
apart and the foimdation of 
peeled willow twigs shows be- 
tween them, causing the effect of 
vertical dark lines on a white 
backgroimd. The lines are 
severe and exact. The bottom 
is made of finer material than 
the walls as the coils here are 
bent more closely. A luiique 
feature is that the foundation is 
made of circular bands bent, 
one in each round, rather than 
the usual spiral. Each of these 
bands is a single willow rod 
spliced at the end. The outer rim is made by o\'erlapping a piece of the 
foundation material all around cornice-wise to the outside of the top. The 
specimen was obtained at Fort OsnaV)urgh on Lake St. Joseph and the 
technique is practically lost in this locality, as only one old Saulteaux 
woman remembered how to make baskets of this type. It is possible that 
formerly this variety of basket was more widespread, but, so far as the 
writer is aware, the specimen is the only one now in existence from the 
Eastern Woodlands.^ Among the Northern Saulteaux, the native name 
for this type of basket is " willow ring basket," a reference to the foundation 
material. 

Quill Work. Porcupine cjuills are soaked until they lose their stiffness. 
They are then drawn between the nails of the thumb and forefinger and 
flattened. After this they are sewn with a needle made from the penis 
bone of a marten. Quills are dyed red with tamarack bark; yellow, with 
black willow; and brown, with punk or rotten wood. White and black 
are natural colors occurring in the quills. 




Fig. 47 (50-8004). Basket of imiisual Tech- 
nique. Diameter. 30 cm. 



1 Mr. M. R. Harrington informs the writer tliat tliere are in existence similar specimens 
from the Ojibway graves in northern Michigan. 



130 Anthropological Papers Amtrican Museum of Natural History [Vol. IX> 

Dyes and Paints. The Northern Saulteaux were acquainted with several 
kinds of paints and dyes, which were: orange and yellow, obtained by 
splitting and boiling black willow root; green; dark red, obtained by boiling- 
spruce cones; red, by boiling tamarack bark; and brown, obtained by 
boiling punk and rotten wood. These dyes were used for coloring porcu- 
pine quills, dyeing buckskin, and birchbark. Wooden implements were 
boiled in spruce root liquor to dye them. 

The following paints were known: — red (2 shades), hematite or ocher; 
and black, charcoal mixed with grease. Other dyes and paints are all 
obtained from the traders. 

Paintings were made on blazed trees, on birchbark, and on canvas. 
The latter were generally animal heads, such as caribou. The heads of 
clan animals or personal totems were especial favorites. There were 
formerly a number of rock paintings in the region of the Northern Saulteaux. 
One painting may still be found at Fairy Point on Missanabie 
Lake. It is supposed by some to represent a man's winter hunt but is 
more likely to represent some of the animals which appeared to the painter 
during his dreams, probably when he was fasting and dreaming for his 
spirit guardian. It is claimed that these drawings were made by the ances- 
tors of some of the Saulteaux living near by. 

Pottery. Up to fairly recent times, pottery was manufactured by some 
remote bands. Selected clay was dug and tempered by kneading a fine 
gravel or coarse sand into it with the fingers. It was then made into rolls 
and the vessels were built up by the coil process, beginning at the middle 
of the bottom and winding the coils around outward and upward to make 
the sides, which were then smoothed over until the appearance of the coils 
was effaced. When complete, the vessel was dried beside the fire. How- 
ever, the firing eventually took place when the vessel was used. In cooking, 
the kettle was set upright in the sand or propped up with stones and the fire 
built around it. Some Saulteaux from Trout River near Lac Seul still 
claimed to be able to make pottery in 1909, but when put to the test they 
did not succeed. Potsherds are found on some old camp sites in Lac Seul, 
notably at Manitou Island, but the writer was unable to obtain any at this 
place. Clay pipes were not used. 

Stone vessels were sometimes made of naturally hollow stones or when 
these could not be found, the natives worked them out by pecking and 
hammering from boulders of soft stone (steatite?). Water was generally 
boiled in these kettles by dropping hot stones in it. 

Birchbark vessels for cooking were unknown to the Northern Saulteaux. 

Use of Birchbark. When the first week of July arrives, birchbark begins 
to peel properly and is then gathered by the natives. A tree with as great 



1911-1 Skinner, The Xorthern SauUeaux. 131 

a girth as possible is selected and care is taken to see that there are no 
branches near the ground. As birchbark peels horizontally, the tree is 
girdled near the base by cutting a short longitudinal gash, and peeling off a 
narrow strip of bark. The Indian then reaches or climbs up on the trunk 
as far as he can and girdles another upper boundary in the same manner, 
thus marking off the length of the strip. Then a gash is cut downward, 
and the bark removed at a single pull, and is then ready for use. If it is 
desired flat, it is laid on the ground and pressed out with stones or sticks. 
If it should dry too much for use it is soaked over night or longer, until 
pliable. It is sewed by punching holes in it with an awl and sewing with 
spruce roots split and soaked until pliable. For a wigwam, the bark is 
made up into rolls of pieces fastened together with narrow strips of root 
with pieces of wood sewn on each end to keep the ends from splitting when 
dry. Three rolls are required for a wigwam. Sometimes the bark is 
ornamented by scratching parallel bands upon it and rubbing black willow 
root dye to darken it and throw out the light bands. Newly made canoes 
are dyed with black willow root dye in this manner. 

Canoe Making. In building a canoe, the first step is to select and sew 
together three or four pieces of strong bark suitable for the bottom covering. 
Stones are then laid on the bark to flatten it. After having been flattened, 
it is laid on the ground and on it is placed a light wooden frame of the size 
and shape that is desired for the bottom. The bark is cut from the outside 
edge to this frame at intervals. It is then bent up around the edge of the 
frame so that the sides of the cuts overlap. Seven stakes are driven along 
each side and a strip is fastened longitudinally over the full length of the 
canoe frame at the bottom. This is to hold the bark more securely in place. 
The fourteen stakes are all driven to the proper height for the gunwales 
of the finished canoe, which should be either the length of the forearm from 
the elbow to the base of the thumb, or, in the case of the largest canoes, to 
the first joint of the thumb. After the stakes have been driven, a bent top 
frame, which afterwards serves as the gunwale of the canoe is fastened inside 
of them at the top. Then the cuts made in the bottom bark are sewed 
together with thread made of peeled willow root. During the sewing 
process this is kept coiled up in a kettle of water to keep it soft. Pieces of 
bark, usually three or four in number, are placed on each side of the bottom 
to form the sides of the canoe. The lower edges of the sides are made to 
overlap the bottom bark and are then all sewed together and to the bottom. 
The slits in the bottom bark are sewed up at this time. After the upper 
edges of the sides are bent around up over the gunwales from the outside 
of the frame and fastened down with small nails or tacks, the bark is sewn 
on to the gunwales. The root thread is wound closely around the gunwale, 



132 Anthropological Papers American Museum of Natural History. [Vol. IX, 

the spirals touching each other for the whole length. Among the Eastern 
Cree, the bark is only bound at intervals. The frames are shaped for the 
bow and the stern. These are made of cedar and must be attached to the 
body of the canoe. The pin which held the ends of the bark together must 
be removed and the ends fastened inside. The peculiar shape of the 
Saulteaux bow and stern is considered by them to be the best type for 
cutting the water and for speed, but each band usually has its own preferred 
type. 

The rising points on either end are to prevent damage to the canoe when 
it is overturned on shore. After the ends are fastened on, the false work 
and stones are removed and the seams pitched inside with plain uncolored 
spriice gum. Rags are laid over the soft pitch and thin flexible lathes the 
proper shape are laid inside the canoe bottom. Then the outside of the 
canoe is pitched with spruce gum which has been mixed with powdered 
birchbark charcoal, to give it its black appearance and make the canoe 
look "handsome" by contrast with the light colored birchbark. After 
this, many Indians dye the canoe with black willow root bark. This dyes 
the canoe a reddish brown which is fairly permanent, but after a season or 
two bleaches out, and accounts for the light color of old canoes. Old canoes 
that have been repatched with new dyed birchbark present the appearance 
of a crazy quilt. The average length of a canoe is from 15 to 18 feet. 
Twelve feet is about the shortest, and in former times some as long as forty 
feet were used. 

Miscellaneous. Prior to the advent of the Europeans, the Saulteaux 
used stone axes, probably of the celt type, for apparently the grooved ax 
was not known to them. A model stone ax of the celt type was shown to 
the writer at Lac Seul. It was hafted in a split stick and l)ound above and 
below the blade with split willow root. In the olden times, when stone 
axes were used, and later when metal axes of European make were first 
introduced, they were so valuable that a family rarely possessed more than 
a single ax. It is claimed that stone axes were pecked into shape with 
another stone. 

Two kinds of crooked knives were formerly used. One was made of a 
sharpened caribou rib wrapped up at one end with buckskin to make a grip 
or handle. The other was a plain flint knife chipped out with a hammer- 
stone. Rubbed stone implements were never made. Arrow points were 
usually made of stone or bone and not of antler. The bone used was taken 
from the shin of the deer or caribou. Semilunar knives or scrapers were 
not used. 

Needles were made of bone or thorns, or carved from wood. The 
perforations in wooden needles and holes in other wooden objects were made 
by burning, as is shown in some of the specimens. 



1911.] Skiniter, The Xorlficrn Saulteaux. 133 

Snow goggles are shaped from a piece of wood hollowed out, aiul made 
narrow at the ends, and projecting forward from the eyes. They were 
blackened inside by rubbing with soot or gimpowder. 

Small torches are made of a roll of birehbark pulled out and ignited for 
use in the wigwams. Larger torches are made in the same way for out door 
use at night. 



PREPARATION OF FOOD. 

Old-time Indians had but two meals a day, in the morning and the 
evening; that is to say, these were the only regular meals, but there was 
u.sually some food about the house which might be eaten between meals 
if any felt so inclined. The culinary art of the Saulteaux is much less 
developed than is that of their neighbors, the Eastern Cree. Formerly, 
meat was usually roasted before the fire on a spit. Now it is more customary 
to boil it. Pottery vessels and paunch kettles were used. The latter 
usually consisted of a part of the stomach of one of the large ruminants, 
and was suspended directly o^■er the blazing fire. The Saulteau.x claim that 
such a stomach kettle could only be used once as it usually was burned 
through. In winter time, hard crust snow is melted to get water for drink- 
ing and cooking. 

In smoking meat out of doors, a scaffold (Plate 2b) is often used. A 
fire is built directly under the scaffold to hold the meat. It is really more 
dried than smoked, the object being to get rid of the juice of the meat. It 
usually takes a day or more to cure meat thoroughly in this manner. When 
traveling, and there is no time to cure meat thorotighly, a grill of poles 
is built and the fire made under it, but this does not cure the meat well. 
Sometimes meat is smoked on a scaffold, or grill, built over the fireplace 
beneath the smoke hole. This is especially the case in the two-fire lodges. 
For smoking, meat is cut into thin strips or steaks so that it can be more 
quickh^ ciu'ed. 

Smoked meat is usually boiled before using but it is occasionally fried. 
In this case, it must be parboiled. Fish are usually boiled, a process, which 
owing to the democratic agency of the kettle, places the flesh, however 
delicate or coarse, whether it be trout, sturgeon, white fish, or sucker, on a 
common level of unpalatability. Fish are also occasionally roasted on a 
spit run through them lengthwise and set obliquely before the fire, ^^^^en 
fish are to be smoked, they are cleaned, split and scaled, and if they are 
other than white fish or suckers, their heads are remov(>d. For smoking 



134 



AiiOiropologicul Papers Anicriani Muaeum of Natural History. [Vol. IX, 




A Rogan for storinji; Dried 



fish, a rectangular scaffold with a grill of cross pieces is lashed together over 
the fire and the fish are laid on this. They are sometimes himg about inside 
t-lie wigwam or outside on poles out of the reach of the dogs and dried with- 
out fire. After a fish has been dried, smoked or boiled it may be eaten just 
as it is. Pickerel roe is baked under the groimd or in hot ashes. 

]Meat is often kept in birchbark baskets, or rogans (Fig. 48). These are 
usually covered with bark carefidl\- tied flown with a spruce root string. 
The boxes are stored on scaffolds out of doors, or on cross poles of the wig- 
A\anis where they will l)e out of the i-each of dogs. Grease is put up in cakes. 

It is run into a birchbark mold 
and cooled before storing and 
is also preserved in a liquid 
state in bags made of the 
bladder of the black bear or 
of pike skin. Wooden bowls 
are now obsolete. They were 
formerly made from birch 
knots. Wooden spoons are 
still used. They are carved 
from the roots of the same 
tree. Fire was not employed 
in the making of these ute^isils. The crooked knife alone served the purpose. 
The Indians scrape oft' the inner bark of the l)irch, poplar and other 
trees (except spruce and balsam which are too sticky), boil and eat it. 
Birch syrup is made like maple syrup and some roots are eaten in times of 
star\ation. 

llnniincj and Fitihing. As agricTilture was not known to the Northern 
Saulteaux, the natives depended almost entirely upon the chase, fishing, 
and wild rice for their food. The animals eaten by the Saulteaux are the 
moose, caribou, Mrginia deer, black bear, lynx, beaver, woodchuck, 
muskrat, skunk and other small animals, including snakes, turtles, and 
game l)lrds of all the species occurring in their range as well as night- 
hawks, hawks and owls and all varieties of fish. 

Of the game taken, the moose is the most important, and many are 
slaughtered annually. The natiA'es are exceedingly wasteful of them, 
indeed one hunter at Osnalnn-gh House on Lake St. Joseph slew thirty-two 
moose and at least seven caribou din-ing the winter of 1908-9. He confessed 
that there was no object in his killing so many except the pleasure in taking 
life, for he had nuicli more meat than he could use, and the skins, even when 
tanned, were of very little value. One of the most redeeming qualities 
of the Northern Saulteaux is their exceedingly poor marksmanship, for 



1911.] Skinner, The Northern SauUeuux. 135 

they seek to slay e\-ery li\-ing animal they see, whether it eau be of any 
use to them or not. 

When a moose is killed, it is butchered on tlie spot with remarkable 
celerity. On the journey from Lac Seul to Lake St. Joseph, in 1909, the 
writer had the opportunity of witnessing the butchering of a moose killed 
by the party. The animal was first drawn, skinned, and quartered, the 
neck severed, the head cut off and the ribs separated from the spine, the 
entire process not taking more than fifteen minutes. The Indians are 
expert anatomists and know at once where to cut in order to disjoint the 
bones. 

A young man killing his first moose or other big game usually has a 
feast made in his honor and is supposed to sit up all night drununing and 
singing prayers for his future success. In taking moose, caribou, and other 
large game, a simple bow about six feet in length and arrows headed with 
stone were used. For ducks and geese, the arrow \vas headed with bone. 
For smaller game, a blunt arrow, short in proportion to the comparatively 
great length of the bow w^as employed. These are still used by the boys. 
The arrow is not feathered nor is the nock flattened. The head of the arrow 
is blunt and terminates in a small point or nipple, though it is occasionally 
left round. The bowstring was formerly made of rawhide, but twnsted 
commercial string now takes its place. In the Saulteaux arrow release 
the arrow is held against the inside edge of the bow^ and the notch fitted to 
the string. The nock is grasped and pulled back with the tip of the thumb 
and the sides or the tips of the first and second finger. 

Bears, lynx, and other carnivora were snared as well as shot. Lynx were 
snared with nooses made of twisted willow roots. A bear snare observed 
by the writer at Lac Seul was made as follows: — From a log suspended 
against the side of a living tree the noose was swung over a bear path near 
by. The rest of the path except where the noose was swung was blocked, 
leaving only a small opening through which the l)ear must come. The 
noose was hung about the height of the l^ear's head to drag the notch loose 
when he came into it; the weight of the suspended log was intended to 
throw^ and choke him to fleath before he could tear away the rope about 
his throat. Hal)bits are caught in a similar maniKM- l)y means of a noo,se 
and tossing pole. Many animals are caught in deadfalls set in their paths. 
This method is used with most fur bearers, the skin of which is lial)le to be 
injured hy catching in any other manner. In constructing the deadfall in 
front of a log pen, a small square frame was built and a trigger bound to 
the top piece. The trigger is also fastened to the falling log which hangs 
down and is kept from falling by a loosely set treadle. The bait is placed 
in the back of the pen on a stick and the whole is co\-(>red to pre\-ent en- 



136 Anthropological Papers American. Museum of Natural History. [Vol. IX, 

trance from the top. The animal crawUng in over the choking board 
steps on the treadle before he can get at the bait and releases the trigger 
which flies up and the falling log drops down, crushing it. These traps are 
used especially for mink, marten, fisher, and lynx. For otter, a similar 
deadfall is made but two choking logs are used. This is generally set at 
the foot of an otter slide. The trap is set in the middle of the chute and the 
two choking logs are placed so that the stick, falling between them will 
break the back of the otter, for he is too strong to be killed by the ordinary 
method. For baiting deadfalls and other snares, pemmican and grease 
flavored with castor are used or sometimes with castor alone. While 
lynx are generally killed by the noose and tossing pole, they are also taken 
by a simple noose. The track of the lynx is usually found in the snow along 
the banks of a creek or river. Sometimes a hunter will set the snare along 
his own trail, for the lynx has the haliit of dogging or following persons 
who are traveling along through the woods, through curiosity. The Indians 
take advantage of this and set the snare on the trail. It consists of 
two uprights on either side of the trail, flanked by brush to keep the lynx 
from going around. These uprights support an inclined log which is fastened 
to them so that it cannot be drawn away. From the middle of this a noose, 
open to the size of the lynx's head is used. The lynx, following his own 
trail or that of the hunter, puts his head into the noose and is caught. Like 
the rabbit, the lynx is exceedingly stupid, and easily caught. Beaver are 
penned in and netted in the creeks by the Saulteaux in the same manner as 
b}' the Eastern Cree. 

The prairie chicken is also snared in an ingenious manner. These birds 
congregate in mnnbers and go through a curious series of actions, known as 
dancing, beating down the grass for quite a space by hopping about. They 
usually resort to the same place every year, during March, the mating 
season. The Indians cut tamarack boughs and fence in the dancing ground 
lea\'ing openings in the enclosure at inter^^als. Slip nooses are set in these 
openings and pieces of branches set out at intervals like radiating spokes 
with snares in them. The Inrds come to the ground, either getting caught 
by the snares set in the circumference of the circular enclosure or in the 
radiating spokes. This type of snare was also found among the Eastern 
Cree. Sometimes the Saulteaux set nets about the adjacent grounds 
and the prairie chickens become entangled in them. 

The poimd trap for taking deer and caribou was imknown to the North- 
ern Saulteaux. Of course, in modern times, steel traps ha\'e taken the place 
of most of the old types and ordinary commercial wire has supplanted the 
spruce root and sinew twine noose. Hunters believe that the possession of 
beaded bandolier shot and powder pouches brings them good luck. 



^^^^■] Skinner, The Noiihern. Saulleaux. 137 

Gill nets are employed at present for fishing. The size of tlie mesh of 
these nets varies according to the size of the fish. Some old Saulteaux 
claim that nets are not an aboriginal hut a luiropean invention. The nets 
are generally set at the mouths of streams in the shallows along the shores 
of rivers and lakes. They vary in length, those used in the risers being the 
shortest, only from twenty-five to fifty feet long; but those used in the 
lakes and in shallower streams are sometimes a hundred or more feet in 
length. They are usually made of twine bought from the traders but were 
probably formerly made of spruce root bark. They are weighted down 
with unworked pebbles. These are bound to the lower edge of the net by 
bark cord. The nets are kept upright by floats made of wood. These are 
about one yard long, lanceolate in shape, and four or five inches l)road at 
the broadest part. They are notched at the lower end for tying to the net. 
In the shallows, the tips stick above the surface and mark the spot where 
the net was placed. Sometimes a buoy is made of old canoe ribs lashed 
together to form an eight-armed star, the arms of which cur\e upward. 

In former times, fish hooks of wood and bone were used. These con- 
sisted of a wooden shaft with a bone barb set at an angle of forty-fi\-e degrees. 
Fish are also "jacked" for at night. Selecting a shallow place where the 
water is clear, the Indians repair to the spot after dark. There the fish are 
attracted to the canoe by a light, made by igniting a roll of birchbark set 
in a split stick. The bark burns brightly and the hsh, which are attracted 
to the spot by the glare, are also rendered quite ^-isible to the occupants of 
the canoe, and are easily speared. Two men are required for this mode of 
fishing, one to hold the jack and the other to use the spear. Trade spears 
are nowadays used for this purpose, l)ut formerly a I)arbed bone harpoon 
took the place, of these. 

Fish traps are set in slack water at the foot of rapids. They are about 
twentA' feet long, with one end open and the end usually pointing 
upstream. The top is also open but the lower end is closed. They are 
designed to catch fish coming down stream. The ends are supported by 
horse-shaped supports and so little water flows through the top that fish 
once swimming in become stranded. Weirs were never used. Among the 
Southern Saulteaux when sturgeon are caught they are clubbed to death 
with a "sturgeon mallet", an implement of wood closely resembling a 
ball-headed war club. 

Wild Rice Culture. Owing to the fact that most of the lakes in the coun- 
try of the Northern Saulteaux have stony bottoms, wild rice, which thrives 
best in mud does not commonly occur in their country. It is said that the 
httle rice that occurs was brought in from elsewhere by the Indians. It 
springs up readily after sowing without any further cultivation and the 



138 Anlfiwpological Papers Anwrican Museum of Natural History. [Vol. IX, 

crop rarely fails unless the water becomes too deep. The crop l)ecomes 
ripe in August, when it is gathered by the Indians who do not tie the stalks 
together in bundles to mark indi\idual ownership. The canoes run about 
in the beds, the stalks are grasped with the left hand and i^ulled over the 
canoe, the grain being beaten from them with a stick or canoe paddle held 
in the right hand. A piece of cloth or birchbark is laid on the l)Ottom of the 
canoe and the grains fall on this. When a supply has been harvested, the 
Indians return to their lodges to dry the rice. This is done by placing it in 
a frying pan and holding it over the fire. When dry, the next process is to 
thresh it. A round hole is dug and lined with birchbark or a piece of cloth, 
and the rice placed in it. It is then threshed l)y the Indians, who first put 
on clean moccasins and then get into the hole and tramp on the rice. The 
rice is then placed in a shallow box or dish of birchl)ark and shaken about 
in the wind to blow away the chaff. When the process is complete the 
grain is put into a birchVnirk box, and kept until needed. When wanted 
for food it is boiled whole, and not ground into flour. Now that the Indians 
obtain liour from the Hudson's Bay Company they have largely given up 
the harvesting of wild rice. 

Prcscnrd Berries. In the proper season, blueberries are gathered in 
large quantities and spread out on a pole scaffold, carpeted with reeds. A 
fire is built beneath this frame and the berries are slowly dried like currants. 
They are eaten while dry just as they are, or mixed with fat or grease and 
pounded caribou meat. 

Peinviican. Meat is dried and pounded between two stones. One of 
these is flat (the one used as a mortar), the other was formerly cylindrical, 
like a pestle, but nowadays the blunt eufl of an ax heafl serves as a pounfler. 
A piece of cloth lies underneath the mortar to prevent any of the meat from 
being lost. When pounded, the meat is mixed with bear's fat or other 
g'rease, and sometimes dried blueberries are added as a relish. This mixture 
is stored in birchl)ark boxes. 

Firc-mal'ing. Although fire-making by striking pieces of flint and 
pyrites together was not imknown to the Saulteaux, the faxorite method 
for fire-making was by means of the bow drill. The bow drill is still used, 
at least by some of the older men, when short of matches in the woods. 
A model of the bow drill was obtained together with the following 
description and demonstration of its use. The bow drill as used in this 
region consists of three pieces: a bow, preferably of cedar, with a thong 
or babiche string, a base board, and a shaft or twirling stick, both of the 
latter being of cedar. The hole in the base board or hearth should be about 
an inch deep and big enough for the point of the twirling stick to fit into it 
.snugly. The hearth when used for traveling is only a few inches long, but 



1911. 



Skinner, The Norlhcrn Saulteaux^ 



i:\d 



when kept permanently ul)oiit the lodge it may he a yard in length. Fire is 
obtained after about five minutes. Birch punk is used for touchwood, 
which is placed in and about the hole into which the twirling stick fits. 
^Mien it begins to smovdder, shredded birchbark is added to obtain flame. 
On June 8, 1909, Ahitcininis, li\ing on Wabigoon Lake near Dinorwic, 
demonstrated with the model made by himself. He knelt down on the 
ground and took the base board firmly between 
his knees. He held the bow in his right hand 
while the shaft was kept upright and in position 
with the palm of the left. He got smoke in about 
three minutes but was obliged to desist because 
he had no tinder. 



AMUSEMENTS. 



The favorite pastime of the Northern Saul- 
teaux is the cup and pin game (napahawn). 
There are eight units made of deer or caribou 
phalangeal bones, the uppermost retaining the 
joint while the others are cut into conical form. 
The counts differed with e\ery band and at every 
Post. At Fort Hope, howe\er, they are as fol- 
lows: — For the buckskin tail, where an elliptical 
piece of buckskin with many perforations is used, 
ten was counted for each hole strung. In a sec- 
ond form where the buckskin had several slits 
instead of perforations, it counted twenty to catch 
the tail with the striking pin. For the hole on 
either side of the topmost unit, thirty was counted. ' 
For the hole in front, one hundred, and for the one 
in the rear, forty was counted. The topmost unit 
if caught alone counted ten, but if caught in con- 
nection witli several others, only one. Each of 
the other units counted but one. In some cases 
the topmost unit has two perforations half way 
down the sides, but the count for these was 
not obtained. The munber of points recjuired 
to win the game was one hundred, and sticks 
about the size of a match are \\<.vd as counters. i> 



^' 



W .1 



(.")()-7i)' 
Hoop and 



■(ii. .\ 



1-tO 



Anllir(>ji<>l(H/icul Papers American Museum of Natural Ili.slorij. [Vol. IX,, 



In playing, a person might continue until he missed a throw when the 
game had to be passed to his left hand neighbor. 

A puzzle, which I shall call "the hoop and rings," is also a great favorite 
(Fig. 49). The object is to get the hoop clear of the rings without letting 
go the free ends held in the hand. It is accomplished by getting the hoop 
and rings in position in series of three, when the hoop is released. The 
next task is to retiu'n it to its former position. Mr. A. C. Parker, state 
archaeologist at the New York State Museum at Albany, New York, 
informs the writer that this puzzle was formerly known to the Seneca Iro- 
quois of New York. 

Cat's cradle is played and several figures with names for each figure 
were observed. A string is tied about the fingers antl the thiunb in an 




Fig, 50 (50-80.52). A Buzzer of Bone. 



apparently inextricable manner, l)ut a pull at one end releases it without 
any trouble. The entls of a string about two and a half feet long are bound 
over the wrists. Another string is passed between the arms and bound 
about the wrist of a second person. The puzzle is to get free without break- 
ing the string or untying it. This is accomplished by looping one string 
and slipping it under the other where boimd about the opponent's hands 
and over his hand. 

Hand ball is played with a l)all of deer, moose, or caribou skin stuffed 
with animal hair, and football with the same kind of l)all of larger size. 



1911.1 



Skinner, The Nortfiern Satdtenii.r. 



141 



There seem to be no rules except that the hall must only he sti-uck with the 
hands, in hand ball, and never touched by the hands in football. 

BwW roarers of several kinds not only serve as amusements but are 
carried by hunters, who use them to bring the wind. The outfit consists 
of a central wooden disc or cylinder or of a scaphoid bone of a deer or moose. 
A string is attached to each side and a grip or handle placed transversely 
at right angles to the end of the string. The whole is held loosely and the 
central disc revolved until the string is very mucli twisted. Then, by 
tightening and loosening the string, the cord unwinds and rewinds itself 
with great rapidity causing the middle piece to revolve and make a loud, 
buzzing noise. Another variety of the bull roarer consists of a piece of wood 
serrated on the edges and attached to a string about a yard long and 
fastened to a string some six inches in length. In this case the stick is 
grasped in the hand and the roarer swung around the 
head. Tops made of wood (Fig. 51 ) were spun with the 
fingers, also, Init to make the wind blow. 

In shinny, two wooden balls are tied together. 
They are thrown and carried by a stick with a knob at 
one end. The game is played by four men or with 
double the number of men and two sets of poles. The 
object was to carry the opponent's goal. Twenty 
points made the game. For this purpose twenty pegs 
of wood about the size of matches are kept and one 
given to the side scoring a goal until one side wins 
them all. This game is also found among the Eastern Cree. 

A game known as fox and geese was probably derived from the Europeans 
and was played as follows: — Sides were chosen with six on each side. 
Lines were drawn at a distance of about one hundred feet from each other 
and the parties were supposed to remain behind his line. One man would 
go over to a point abovit ten or fifteen feet from the other side when he 
would be pursued by a player from that side, who would endeavor to touch 
him. If he succeeded in this, the man touched must submit and remain 
where he was placed by his captor imtil released by one of his own men. 
The object of the game was to catch all of the enemy. 

Snow snake is played in winter. The stick is about two feet long and 
pointed at each end. No sides are taken as it is merely a trial of skill. 
Gambling is not practised. 

Bows and arrows, bow guns, and hand slings arc faxorite children's 
toys. These are sometimes very diminutive. The Lac Seul Saulteaux 
used a so-called "popgun" or "flipping stick" but in a different 
manner from the more northern Saulteaux. Among the latter, it is long, 




Fig. .51 (50-8115). 
A Top. Height, 8 cm. 



142 



Anthropological Papers American Museum of Natural History. [Vol. IX, 



pointed and supple, bending over or bowing backward. It is used to hurl 
single stones or pebbles, whereas the former type is shorter, stiff and has 
a broad end in which a longitudinal groove or slot is made to hold the mis- 
sile, a quantity of coarse sand or fine gravel discharged by a motion of the 
right wrist. Toy canoes, baby frames, and other articles, were often seen. 
Small animals are frequently dressed by little girls to serve as dolls. 

Dances and Music. The Northern Saulteaux have long ceased to hold 
the old-fashioned dances and now, like the Eastern Cree, dance entirely 
in the European fashion, to the music of the drum and fiddle. The dances 
of the midewin were the last to go out but even these are obsolete. The 
old dances w^ere always circular. It is remembered that certain holidays 
w^ere observed every year at various seasons when dances were held. One 
ceremony occurred early in the spring when the leaves began to bud and the 
grass to show. For a long time prior to this dance the Indians busied 
themselves in gathering various kinds of choice meat and other food to 
feast on during the ceremony. The festival was held in a large tent, the 
food was passed out by a shaman from a great pile in the center of the lodge. . 
The event lasted for three days. The dancing was held outside the tent 
around a fire. The drummers stood or squatted by the fire and the others 
danced about them. The dance was not continuous but stopped at inter- 
vals. Prayers of thanksgiving for the past year and petitions for the year 
to come were offered. All dances were religious in their significance and 




Fig. 52 (50-7448 9). A Drum and Stick. Diameter, 26 cm. 



1911. 



Skin7ier, The Xorlhcrn Saultedux. 



143 



were either for thanksgiving or petitions. Other dances remembered were, 
the shaman's dance (midewin?), bear (hmce, and war chmce (preceded by 
the discovery dance). 

The musical instruments were few and crude. Drums of several sorts 
were known. These varied in size. The commonest sort was double- 
headed, with paintings in blue, green, and red, usually realistic in their 
design, on the parchments (Fig. 52). Bent drumsticks occurred, others were 
straight with a piece set at right angles at the striking end (Fig. 52). Flutes 
seem to have been vmknown, but whistles were commonly used by the 
children. Rattles used by the midewin were formerly made of a birchbark 
cylinder containing pebbles, with a handle running through it from i^nd to 
end. Tin cans have lately 
served the purpose of the 
birchbark. At Fort Hope, 
children's rattles were for- 
merly made of sturgeon skin 
or of the skin of an unidenti- 
fied fi.sh, locally known as the 
" moral ", but the form could 
not be learned. 

Pipes and Smoking. The 
Northern Saulteaux claim 
that they had no tobacco 
before the European advent, 
and that they had no knowl- 
edge of smoking or pipes. 
As their northern neighbors, 
the Eastern Cree, smoked 
kinickinick before they re- 
ceived tobacco, and the 

Ojibway proper have long had the custom, this statement seems improba- 
ble, although of course, tobacco may be a recent importation among them. 
The stone pipe bowls used by the Northern Saulteaux are generally made of 
a blackish or greenish steatite (?). They are generally either of the 
"Micmac type," ^ (Fig. 53a), the form in general use among the Eastern 
Cree, or shaped like the well-known angular Siouan,'^ or Plains form 
(Fig. 53b). The stem is made of a .shrub or plant known as " marten 
wood". Sections about six inches long and slightlv thinner than a lead 




Fig. 5.3 a (.50-7930), b (.50-7940). 
Pipes. 



Stone-iicadcd 



1 McGuire. 479. 

- McGuire, 571 et seq. 



144 Anthropological Papers American Museum of Natural History. [\'ol. IX, 

pencil are cut. The bark is peeled off and the pithy heart removed. These 
stems are easily made, so that the Indians usually keep a supply on hand, 
renewing the stem whenever it becomes clogged. The long and ornate stems 
seen further south are not found in the region under discussion. Most stone 
pipe bowls are perfectly plain, but one specimen (Fig. o3b) secured is inlaid 
with lead. Nowadays, stone pipes are more commonly used by the women 
than by the men, and the "Micmac" type seems to have formerly been used 
exclusively by males, although now there appears to be a lack of informa- 
tion on the subject. Pipes are used generally for ordinary purposes, but in 
former times they had a ceremonial use, especially in war and peace 
ceremonies. 



TRAVEL AND THAXSPORTATIOX. 

In the summer, most traveling is l)y means of canoes along the rivers, 
the highways of the forests, for few long trails, except those used in winter 
are known. Pack baskets of l)irchV)ark may be used occasionally by the 
southern bands of Saulteaux, as they certainly are by those dwelling near 
the northern shore of Lake Superior, but north of this, the pack strap takes 
its place. The pack strap has a broad piece of leather which runs across 
the forehead and narrow side thongs about six feet in length for tying on 
the burden; the weight resting more upon the head and neck than upon the 
shoulders. Burden frames of a peculiar type were formerly used in trans- 
portation. These were shaped like a horseshoe with elongated sides. A 
babiche web crossed the frame and a pack strap attached it to the fore- 
head, the open end being awa}' from the bottom and the bent end touching 
the small of the back, the whole standing out at an angle of forty-five degrees. 
Articles were hung on it and axes and other utensils hooked into it. 

Saulteaux baby carriers are of three kinds, the oldest and most archaic 
consists of a board to which a bag is fastened, and the baby is placed inside 
of this. The type now most common in the south has a bow at the head 
to hold up the canopy or sunshade and also to prevent injury to the child 
if the carrier should be dropped while the baby is in it. Another type with 
a simple bow, occurs further north. When the child is on the baby board, 
it is laced into a bag bound to the carrier usually made soft and comfortable 
with moss, which also soaks up the urine and is changed from time to time. 
In traveling, the arms of the baby are usually bound up to prevent their 
being struck, injured or broken by a swinging branch, but when at rest, the 
bab\''s arms are usuallv allowed to be free. The Saulteaux think that the 



1911.1 



Skinner, The Xorthern Saulteanx. 



145 



board makes the child's liack straighter. Sometimes the moss bag alone 
is used to carry the child and the back of this is stiffened with sheets of 
birchbark. Baby boards are carried on the back by means of a strap 
running from the upper corners which- goes about the chest or over the 
forehead like a pack strap. The bag is sometimes suspended and swiing or 
rocked by means of this strap thro^\^l over a post or branch of a tree. Small 
blankets of rabbitskin, closed at the bottom, are used as carrying bags or 
blankets for the babies when on the cradle board. 

In winter, toboggans were used to draw supplies over the snow. Owing 
to the difficulty of doing this work, a man can only pull a load about one 
half as great as he can carry with a head strap. Indians drawing mail 





Fig. 54. (50-7971, 7963). Two types of Snowshoes. 



toboggans for the Hudson's Bay Company formerly cai'ried swinging sticks 
in their hands. In pulling the toboggan, the hands are swung from side 
to side in front of the bofly. The sticks are grasped at either end by knobs 
put there for the purpose and s\\img back and forth horizontally. They 
are about two and a half feet or one yard long, painted and decorated with 
ribbons. Dog sleds are recent innovations brought from the Eskimo 
through the Eastern Cree and are rarely used by the Saulteaux. 

Two types of snowshoes are common (Fig. o-t). A long and narrow form, 
called "gillies" by the Hudson's Bay Company servants, is u.sed in hunting 
and walking through the forests, and short rounded ones for running or 



146 Ardfiropological Papers American Museum of Natural History. [\o\. IX, 

following the dog teams. The bejir's paw form is said not to have been 
used by the more southern bands. A pair somewhat resembling this type 
but a little more elongate (Fig. 54) was obtained at Martens Falls, the 
habitat of one of the most northern Saulteaux bands who possibly derived 
this type from the Eastern (_"ree. Snowshoes are netted with babiche, or 
if this is not ol)tainal)le, sturgeon skin, or even willow root bark is employed. 
In the latter case, the bark net is always carefully oiled or greased to prevent 
it from cracking or becoming Ijrittle in the cold. Canoe sleds are used to 
drag canoes o\'er the snow from ri^•er to river in the spring when the ice is 
breaking up. When other materials failed, snowshoes were made of wood 
as makeshifts (Fig. 54). A cross board kept them from slipping like skiis. 
Snowshoes were often unlaced in cold weather, when the strings were 
frozen and the fingers numb, liy a snowshoe unlacer made of one of the 
rami of the inferior maxillar\' of the Ivnx. 



SIGNS AND SIGNALS. 

The Ojibway have few methods of expressing themseh'cs by signs. 
When traveling through the forest one may find a deserted camp near 
which a stick is set obliquely in the ground. This means, " We mo\'ed 
from here in such a direction" (according to the way in which the stick is 
inclined). If it is the intention of the party to indicate where their next 
camp will be pitched, this is signified by placing a vertical stick on the 
ground projecting aboA'e the oblicjue bar for each day, which reads, " We 
are going in such a direction and will camp there three days." A round 
piece of wood lashed to the obliciue bar over one of the vertical rods, signi- 
fies the length of time the party will stay in camp and reads, " We went 
in such a direction and will camp there four days." When the round piece 
is placed at the end of the oblique bar over the last vertical rod it signifies, 
"We will journey five days in the direction indicated and will camp there 
indefinitely." The Northern Saulteaux claim that they never used smoke 
signals, and were not acquainted with pictiu'e writing, except the bark 
scrolls of the midewin. Since the advent of European missionaries, however, 
the syllables invented by them have been widely adopted. Letters in 
syllables, written in lead pencil or charcoal on birchbark, or on a white 
chip are placed in split sticks along the banks of rivers, where they are even- 
tually fomid by the person for whom they were intended. Trees are also 
"blazed," the bark is cut awav M'ith an ax for a smaller or larger area and 



1911.] Skinner, The Xoiihcrn Snullranx. 147 

the white wood exposed underneath. This space is then used to write 
upon iii the well-known syllabic characters. Trails through the forest 
are marked by "blazing"; the trees are hacked at intervals by the maker 
of the trail as he passes along and the white marks shining through the 
forest serve as guide posts to future comers along the road. 



:\IOXTHS AXl) SEASONS. 

The Northern Saulteaux divide the year into the following six seasons: — 
spring, sigun; between spring and summer, min'okomin; smnmer, nipin; 
autiunn, tukwa'gin; Indian summer, pit'cipipoim; winter, pipoun. 
They reckon tweh'e hmar months as follows: — 

January, djibapiwutkizis (djiba, morning — •). 

PVbruary, kjekizis (big moon). 

March, mikisiukizis (eagle moon). 

April, nikikizis (the moon the geese come or goose moon). 

May, miingokizis (the moon the loons come, loon moon). 

.June, sagibukkaokizis (l)udding leaf moon). 

July, Woskunltcikizis (imripe berry month). 

August, Atikteminikizis (ripe berry moon). 

September, pazikohoikizis (the moon young ducks begin to fly). 

October, pimahamoikizis (the moon the birds begin to fly south). 

November, kuskutinikizis (freezing moon, or lakes and rivers freez- 
ing moon). 

December, pichipiponikizis (the moon that winter begins). 



DIRECTIONS AND WEATHER CUSTOMS. 

Among the Northern Saulteaux, the names for the directions are: — 
north, kitwetEnung; south, shawanung; west, negapiung; up, ishpeming; 
down, tabuzish; north wind, kiwetinotin, south wind, wabanotin; east 
wind, shawanotin; Avest wind, negapihim. 

The following legend is preserved among the Northern Saulteaux in 
regard to the origin of the winds : — A woman had four children at one time. 
When they were born, the w^oman died and left the four children. They 



148 Aiilhropological Papers American Museum of A"atural History. [Vol. IX. 

were all sons. The oldest of tliese was the south wind. The second was 
the east wind, the third was tlie west wind, and the yoinigest was the north 
wind. The first said he would travel sonthward, the second, said, "I will 
go east," the third said, "I will go west," and the foiu'th said, " I will go 
north." The first said when he went to the south he would bring warm 
weather, the second said he woidd l)ring bad weather, the third told the 
people he would bring rather cold weather. The man who went to the 
north said that he woidd send \ery cold weather. 

In order to get the wind to blow in any direction, the Indians used to 
conjure. Sometimes a rabbit is made of snow and set up to make the north 
wind blow. The north wind is the only wind the Saulteaux tried to bring, 
since it is the best hunting wind. Tops are spim liy twisting them between 
the fingers or the palms of the hand to bring the north wind and snow. They 
continue to do this din"ing the winter imtil the snow gets deep enough so 
that they can pursue game easily. 

The only animal permanently domesticated by the Saulteaux is the dog. 
When traveling they frequently tie the dog's left fore-leg around his neck 
to keep him from running away. This is also done to pre\"ent him from 
wandering among the wigwams. To keep him from biting and stealing 
food, a thong is tied around his muzzle so that he cannot open his mouth. 
INIcKenney ^ mentions this method of secm'ing dogs among the Ojibway of 
Fond du Lac, where he said they tied "a Piece of wattap around their necks 
.... putting one of the fore feet of the dog through it/' 



ART. 

Little can be said on this interesting subject, since the Northern Saul- 
teaux have lost almost every vestige of their ancient art. The Eastern Cree, 
poor as they are in material cidture, have still retained more traces of their 
art than have the Saulteaux. In general, it may be said that there seems 
to be little or no s\mbolism. Art was generally either geometric and purely 
ornamental, or realistic and of religious portent. This, however, does not 
always hold good for while geometrical designs do occur on religious paint- 
ings, they are scarce, whereas realistic designs often appear purely decorative 
Fig. 55 shows a birchbark basket with incised geometric designs. In 
other cases realistic figures were obser\ ed. A drum which lias on it a repre- 
sentation of a moose, a goose, and Wiseketcak, means that it may be used in 
supplication to either the animals or the spirits. 



I McKemiev, 334. 



1911.] Skinner, The Northern SauUenux. 149 

What bead or silk work was collected consisted, with one exception, of 
flower or fruit designs on pouches and moccasins. These designs are said 
to be of European origin or suggestion, the old painting l)eing the pristine 
form of art among the Northern Saulteaux. Moccasins were never orna- 
mented prior to the coming of Europeans. The exception mentioned is a 




Fig. 55 (50-7974). A decorated Birchbark Basket. 

pair of beaded leggings from Martens Falls, showing a flower design. For- 
merly, it is said that of clothing, only breechclouts were ornamented and 
this was with porcupine quills, a method now obsolete. 

Paintings were once made on canoe prows, and these too were realistic. 
Geometric designs were painted on bears' skulls and bones for religious 
and protective purposes. 



SOCIAL ORGANIZATION. 

The social organization of the Saulteaux, probably never ^•ery strong, has 
been greatly broken up during the past half century. Owing to the less 
rigorous climatic and economic conditions prevailing throughout most of 
their territory, the Northern Saulteaux do not live such an isolated life as 
the Eastern Cree. Their w^inter camps usually contain several related 
families, though this does not always follow. It is said that in former 
times, the matriarchial exogamic clan system was known, but now all 
traces of this are practically lost. Certainly in former times, inheritance 



150 Anthropological Papers American Museum of Natural Hiatory. [Vol. IX, 

was through the mother, witli the exception of the allotted hunting grounds 
of a family, which will be commented on later. In some cases, a widow 
having a grown son-in-law permits him to take charge of her children and 
to act as their guardian, at least, so far as their marriages are concerned. 
The Northern Saulteaux have a considerable number of clans, which now 
have no importance whatever, and which are no longer exogamic. The 
existence of phratries could not be discovered. Owing to the wide extent 
of the Northern Saulteaux range, it is unusual for more than a few members 
of the same clan to inhabit the same territory. The writer was able to get 
the following list of clans at the Posts where we stopped : — at Lac Seul, 
deer, moose, bear, beaver, pelican; at Osnaburgh House, sturgeon, sucker, 
loon, caribou; and at Fort Hope, moose, sturgeon, loon, crow (raven?), 
goose, duck. 

The snake and kingfisher clans were also reported, and the Indians 
admitted that there were more, the names of which they did not know. 
Clan animals are eaten by the members of the clan to whose totems they 
belong, V)ut certain parts are tabooed. The clans never camped apart but 
always mingled freely. 

In former times the chief was merely a man who attained power through 
his own ability and personal influence. All chiefs are now appointed by 
the government. p]very adult male Northern Saulteaux has a certain 
well-known range over which he has the exclusive right of trapping and 
hunting game, known as "Tzikewin," a word corresponding to home. 
This, by exception to the general rule of maternal inheritance, descends at 
his death to his nearest living relative, male or female in order of age. Of 
course, if this falls to the lot of a woman, her husband is permitted to use 
the territory. By exception, if a man leaves no sons of age, and had no 
nephews or nieces, his widow's oldest son-in-law may be permitted to use 
the territory. If, however, he has nephews or nieces, the land goes to 
them. The rules regarding the punishment for violation of the law against 
hunting on another man's lands are said to have been very strict at one 
time, but are now lax, although hard feelings and even blows frequently 
result from transgression. 

Marriage. According to Long, a Northern Saulteaux, wishing to marry 
a girl, would go to her father and ask for her. If the father approved, an 
interview was appointed for which the lover prepared by taking a sweat bath. 
He then came into her presence and sat on the ground, smoking a pipe. 
As he smoked, he took one hundred small pieces of wood about an inch in 
length and threw them at her, one b\^ one. She tried to catch these in a 
bark bowl and for everyone which she caught her lover had to make a 
present to her father, these presents being considered as payment for the 



1011.] Skinner, The Northern SauIteaiLV. 151 

(laughter. The young man then gave a feast to which the entire family 
was invited. After the feast they danced and sang their war songs. 
Presents were exchanged between the lover and the relations of the young 
woman. The father then co\'ered the lovers with a beaver robe and gave 
them a new gun and canoe. ^ 

My informants stated that in the event of a young man wishing to 
marry a girl, he was formerly required to make a present of some kind to her 
father. In later years, a new gim or some steel traps was regarded as a good 
consideration. There was no further ceremony, the young woman was 
simply sent to live in her new husband's lodge at once. In case a girl had 
no father, her oldest brother-in-law had the right to give or refuse her in mar- 
riage. If she lacked a brother-in-law, her oldest brother had the privilege. 
Polygamy was common and was onh' limited by a man's means to maintain 
a harem. Men having thirteen wives are still remembered though five to 
seven were more common. It was always considered best to choose wives 
from a group of sisters, if possible, than to marry girls from different 
families. There were no regulations in regard to age, a man married 
when he became a .successful hunter; a girl generally when she had 
reached the age of puberty, although instances of earlier marriage were 
noted. The custom of giving a young woman to a \'isiting stranger is still 
known. 

Children were named as soon as they were born and a feast was given to 
celebrate the occasion. It is, or was, strictly tabooed to ask a man for his 
name. It must be obtained through someone else. Incidentally, the 
suffixes nabe (male) and noje (female) are often affixed to personal and 
animal names. To the names of animals of which the sex is known, these 
suffixes are always attached. They refer to the sexual organs. Children 
were not trained in any way except b\' example. They were nexer struck 
and rarely reproved. Ridicule answered this purpose and praise was used 
to stimulate good efforts. They were sometimes forcibly restrained from 
mischief. McKenney says of the Ojibway of Fond du Lac, "Here was a 
sight worth seeing. At least two hiuidred children, some tied with strings 
and others with the tender roots of the cedar to the fastening of their 
mothers' petticoats." - They are not weaned until they were from four to 
six years' old. Teething children are allowed to chew on inflated Hsh 
bladders to cut their teeth. 

Berdaches are rare, but are known everywhere. They habitually dress 
and act like women. It is said that the Indian name for these persons, who 
are invariably supposed to be hermaphrodites, is translated "split testicles." 

1 Long, 135. 

2 McKenney, 339 



152 Anthropological Papers American Museum of Natural History. [Vol. IX, 

Some berdaches have been known to take husbands and hved with them as 
their wives. 

Menstnial Customs. A girl having her first monthly terms is confined to 
a small isolated lodge built for the purpose. During this period no com- 
munication of any kind is held with her, nor is she allowed to partake of any 
food. It could not be learned that any further customs were observed by 
the Northern Saulteaux except for the first period. 

From all that the wTiter could learn the aged and infirm were well taken 
care of, but this was not always the case according to some of the older 
observers. Long states that among the Saulteaux, the aged men were 
sometimes killed by their sons and when an old man was reluctant to die, 
his children would sometimes offer him the alternative of being put ashore 
on some island with a canoe and paddles, bow and arrows, and a bowl from 
which to drink, to run the risk of starving. Long further states that the 
old people usually preferred to be killed according to custom. In the case 
of an execution of this sort, a sudatorj^ was first made, a dog feast given, 
and the pipe of peace smoked. After this the following song was sung : — 

"The Master of Life gives courage. It is true, all Indians know that 
he loves us, and we now give our father to him, that he may find himself 
young and enter their country, and be able to hunt." 

The songs and dances were then renewed and finally the son killed his 
father with a tomahawk. The body was then painted in the best manner 
and buried with the old man's war weapons. A bark hut was made to 
cover the grave so that wild animals would not disturb it.^ 



RELIGION. 

As the primary object of the Museum's expedition to the Saulteaux was 
to study their material culture, very little attempt was made to secure 
information in regard to shamanism and the midewin, or medicine lodge 
society. As it is hoped that at no far distant date the notes collected 
among the Ojibway by the late Dr. William Jones may be published, any 
effort on the part of the writer to secure additional information would have 
been superfluous. However, in passing, a few notes were collected which 
will be given for what they are worth. 

The southern bands of the Northern Saulteaux still maintain the medi- 
cine lodge in full force, although the northern bands have given it up. 
About thirty years ago Mr. Jabez Williams, manager of the Hudson's Bay 

» Long. 73-75. 



1911.] Skinner, The Northern SauUeaux. 153 

Company at Fort Osnaburgh House, Lake St. Joseph, attended a cere- 
mony at the northwest angle of the Lake of the Woods. At that time, 
an oval booth of willows and brush was built, and at either end were erected 
poles with ribbons attached, to each of which a white dog was tied. The 
men sat at one end of the booth and the women at the other. The dancers 
were led by the shaman highest in rank and the dancers were naked save 
for the clout and moccasins. ]Most of these were painted with white, the 
ribs and bones being marked on the skin, perhaps to represent jibai (ghosts 
or skeletons). The dancers held their medicine bags before them in front 
about waist high with both hands and danced in a circle about the poles. 
As they danced, they chanted an endless repetition of the syllables, "ho! 
ho! ho!" At intervals, some dancer would pause and pointing his medicine 
bag at a bystander or novice would bring it forward and upward with both 
hands until its head touched the man. This was "shooting the migis." 
A person so touched would fall to the groimd and lie as if dead. This was 
repeated a great many times. At length, Mr. Williams, who was the only 
white man present was approached })y several Indians who said that the 
dogs were to be killed and this no white person might see. He was led 
away a short distance where he remained while the dogs were strangled. 
After a time, he was sent for again and returned to the medicine lodge where 
all present took part in the dog feast. The custom of having a dog feast 
after or during the ceremony was also found at Lac Seul. Mr. Williams 
also saw songs and rituals of the midewin which were written on birchbark. 

Mr. Thomas Lawson, a half-breed servant of the Hudson's Bay Com- 
pany, at Lake St. Joseph, also informed the writer that he had seen five 
Sioux scalps carried in a midewin dance at Lac Seul fifty years ago. These 
were suspended from poles ornamented with ribbons. 

Certain classes of shamans are said to procure intercourse with the 
spirits through the turtle as an intermediary. A conjuror wishing to 
exhibit his power permits himself to be bound hand and foot and thrust 
into a small dome-shaped tent. He summons his supernatural helpers, 
the lodge begins to shake, his clothes and the ropes with which he is bound 
are all thrown out of the lodge. After the performance is over, the shaman 
will be found naked and unbound inside the lodge. While these things are 
going on, the bystanders grovel on their hands and knees in a circle about 
the conjurors' lodge. The shaman, so far as could be learned, does not use 
the drum while in the lodge, but often, however, sings and drums at night 
while not in the lodge. In mide ceremonies, the rattle plays a secondary 
part, but a shaman at work uses the drum only. For this reason, drums 
are almost impossible to secure as specimens. Wooden figures were used 
by the shamans in malevolent conjuring. They were frequently set up 



154 Anthropological Papers American Museum of Natural History. [\'ol. IX, 

in the snow in winter or around on stumps for the purpose of injuring 
enemies. 

In tending the sick, four or five mide are often present at one bedside. 
They make use of ermine (weasel), mink, otter, and young bearskins orna- 
mented with beads and ribbons. These are considered to be actually em- 
bodied with power to perform various acts. They are called spirits and 
some claim that they are related to the personal guardian and dream spirit 
of the shaman. Actual medicines are also administered by the members 
of the society, but their use is so closely connected with the supernatural 
powers of the mide that when a shaman is converted to Christianity he 
very frequently destroys or caches his stock of herbs as he considers them 
connected with evil spirits with whom he formerly associated. The mide 
society rites are not practised north of Lac Seul although there are many 
Saulteaux living even at Fort Hope who were once members of this society. 
At the northern posts there were four degrees of the midewin. The head 
conjuror, or mideo, resided at Lac Seul and it is said appointed one man of 
each degree at Fort Hope and probably at other posts. When one of these 
men died it was customary for the men of the next highest degree to move 
up and take his place. 

A young man wishing to join the midewin, nuist ha\e a supernatural 
revelation in the form of a vision to this effect. It is practically impossible 
to learn the nature of any of these dreams, as no Indian will e\'er tell them, 
especially to a white man for fear that his power may l)e revoked. The 
following dream, however, was obtained from Wabus-inini, the oldest and 
most noted conjuror of the Northern Saulteaux residing at Fort Hope. 
It is given here as nearly as possible verbatim. 

" When I was a young man I went away by myself, just as all young men 
do, and fasted for ten days. Then I had my dream. At first I dreamed 
that the world, was very small and empty. After a while there were two 
Indians upon it who lived there and suffered all the time. Then many 
people came from another country and .supplied them with food and other 
things. Then I saw all kinds of animals, and fish, and l)irds. Someone, 
I did not know who, was going to look after them and take care of them 
and help the Indians to live and give the Indians one animal at a time to 
eat, and so they lived for a long time. Then I dreamed of a drum and how 
to make one and about the Great Spirit and the conjuring tent, and that 
the beating of the driun was the same as a prayer to the Great Spirit. 
The shadow of the conjuring tent reached to heaven and in the shadow I 
saw spirits moving back and forth. Then I knew that I was to be the one 
to take care of the Indians and that was the end of my dream." 

A feast described by James Stewart as taking place at Beren's River 



1911.] Skinner, The Xorthcrn Snnltcaux. 155 

on the east shore of Lake Winnipeg is caHed the "Feast of the Metawain," 
but afterwards Stewart calls it the "Feast of the Long Life," which is appar- 
ently correct, although the ceremony seems to be one of the rites of the 
midewin. Stewart names the society "The Metawin" and lie states 
that it exists from Lake Superior to the far north. It was established in 
the east by some supernatin-al characters, but knowledge of the exact 
location of this head lodge, whicli lie claims still exists, has been lost through 
the migrations of the Saulteaux. From this original lodge, power was given 
to the participating shamans to found subordinate lodges. The first of 
these subordinate lodges was foimded somewhere in the vicinity of Lake 
Winnipeg five or six hundred years ago. The rites were to be performed 
every alternate year and from this lodge the various Indian tribes received 
permission to form other lodges. 

Each lodge had officers which Stewart denominates the Grand Master 
of ^Medicine, the Master of Ceremonies, and other minor officers. The 
badge of membership was the skin of some small animal, such as beaver, 
mink, nniskrat, owl, or even snake, highly ornamented with porcupine 
quills and containing personal charms and medicine. The Metawin tent, 
which should be erected at the spring of the year, was long and narrow. 
The framework was covered with closely woven Iwughs to screen the opera- 
tions from outsiders. The doors opened to the east and south. 

In\itations were sent out l)y the chief shaman in the form of a piece of 
tobacco. The chief shaman and his assistants collected all the members 
of the ^Vletawin and approached the tent on the east side marching around 
it three times, following the course of the sun. At the third time around, 
the Grand Master halted opposite the entrance and advanced and retreated 
three times essaying to enter, meanwhile singing as follows: — 

"I approach but fear 
To be near they presence, 
Oh: Oh I Oil! Oh! Oh!" 

.•\s this chant is finished, his assistant, whom Stewart calls the Director 
of Ceremonies, lifted up the door with his wand, and the Grand Master 
entered followed by the members. He then chanted the following: — 

"I have entered, I have entered, 
Long life to gain, long life to gain 
Oh! Oh! Oh! Oh! Oh!" 

The members then marched around the inside of the tent three times 
holding in their hands the skin bags and the migis shells. They sat around 
the lodge while the chief shaman took his stand with a drum and stick in his 



156 Anthropological Papers American Museum of Natural History. [Vol. IX^ 

hand near a human image at the head of the tent. He tapped the drum 
three times repeating the words, "Ne kan, ne kan, ken na nah ka na nah." 
He proceeds to address the company in somewhat the following strains. 
"The Great Spirit, who dwelleth in the heavens, bless you all and send you 
long life. The white haired man brings him life, and has given me life 
which I give to all my brothers and sisters. Our forefathers left us this 
tent to teach our children and your life depends upon the secrets of your 
own breasts. Prepare your magic beads (migis) and medicine skins of the 
tent of life, to cast your beads on the sick and dying men who may be placed 
before you to restore life. Your magic beads shall pierce the rocks, the 
spirits who preside over our secret councils shall bless your efforts to restore 
health and long life. The path of our ancestors teaching us the use of 
countless herbs and roots growing in this our world will sing the song of 
enchantment, when each member will offer with gratitude to his teacher, 
the offerings he may have brought with him to speak and receive long life." 

Following this, several other speeches were made and then the members 
of the lodge marched about the tent several times, swinging their medicine 
bags and uttering a monotonous chant to the tune of the drum. 

The candidates for admission to the secrets of the lodge were seated 
with the women and children along the sides of the tent. Suddenly the 
procession came to a halt opposite one of the candidates. The chief medi- 
cineman muttered something to the candidate and threw his medicine bag 
toward him, w^iereupon the candidate dropped to the ground as if shot. 
The medicinemen then gathered around in a kneeling posture and blew into 
his ears and mouth, shaking their medicine bags over him, at the same time 
making a soft rumbling noise. In a short time the candidate comes to 
life, and the march being resumed the slain man grasps his medicine bag 
and follows the procession. This ceremony was repeated until all the 
candidates had been initiated. 

After the candidates had been admitted feats were performed by the 
indi\idual shamans, such as swallowing migis beads and having them 
magically replaced in the medicine bag. After this has been done the 
offerings were taken down and given to the newly initiated candidates who 
in their turn distribute them among the medicinemen according to pro- 
visions made in a secret conclave shortly before the ceremonies. After 
this, the shamans again marched around the tent with a half trot, occasion- 
ally pointing their medicine bags at each other. The one pointed at imme- 
diately fell as if shot, but got up and followed the others. On some occasions, 
the}'^ seemed badly wounded, and unable to rise, and in this case the others 
gathered about the sufferer and after much ceremony made a show of 
extracting a bead from the body. If the bag was pointed at the body the 



1911.] Skinner, The Xotihcrn SauUeau.r. 157 

victim suddenly fell down motionless, hut if the ha<>; was pointed at the 
knees the candidate would become lame. 

During the ceremonies the women and children w^ere seated around the 
inside of the tent and feasted at intervals. The women would go out and 
tend the nets which were constantly set, and if any fish were caught they 
were brought in and cooked immediately. 

If dogs entered the tent accidentally they were immediately dispatched 
and boiled. Several dishes full of dog meat and dog broth or sturgeon were 
set before the wooden images in the tent, but this food was dixidcd among 
the medicinemen when the feast was over. 

At this ceremony, admission was had by making presents of to- 
bacco, tea, and sugar. These were deposited before wooden images of 
the goose, duck, fox, and other animals, which stood in the center of the 
tent. Down the middle of the lodge was a row of poles from which hung 
offerings described by Stewart as made by " those penitent sinners who came 
to obtain pardon for their misdeeds, and also the offerings of those w^ho had 
made a good hunt during the past winter and of those who had recovered 
from sickness. These offerings consisted of various articles, such as pieces 
of printed calico, clothing, guns, knives, ammunition and other things. 
At the foot of each pole were placed roughly-made wooden images of various 
birds and other animals, while at the head of the tent, where the chief 
men sat, was a sort of image representing a human form, partly of wood 
and partly of clothing, which, I was informed, was the god of medicine. 
The spectators were seated close around the sides of the tent, sufficient space 
being left between the assembly and the line of the tent poles in the centre 
to allow those who performed their religious rites to march around, which 
was done in a sort of half run, half walk and part dance, and uttering a 
monotonous chant while the drum at the end of the tent kept up a con- 
tinual tom-tom." ^ 

When Stewart had deposited his admission fee he partook of a feast of 
sturgeon. Others who came into the lodge after making their presents 
also received boiled sturgeon or dog meat in w^ooden dishes. 

The origin of these rites is given by Stewart a-^ follows: — 

"Geeche Manitou, or the Great Spirit, revealed three mysterious ceremonies 
to man shortly after his creation, about the time the first pair had grandchildren 
born to them, and before death had entered into the world. 

At the time there existed two powerful snakes which had existed from the be- 
ginning of the world, the rattlesnake and the natawa. They lived together in 
harmony for many years, but at length the rattlesnake grew jealous of the powerful 
and deadh' natawa, which envy so increased that the rattlesnake challenged the 



I Stewart, 95. 



158 Anthropological Papers American Mu!<eum of Natural History. [\o\. IX, 

natawa to try which of thom posseshied the most deadly poiison by inflicting a bite 
on mankind. The natawa demurred at first, not willing to disturb the peace and 
harmony which prevailed in the world, but from day to day the rattlesnake so 
taunted him with cowai'dice that the good-natured natawa consented to accept the 
challenge. 

x\t that period there lived two powerful chieftains near to each other, who were 
on great terms of intimacy. Each had a son grown up to manhood who loved one 
another sincerely, and often used to hunt in the woods together. During one of 
these rambles it came to jiass that the rattlesnake and the natawa waylaid them for 
the purpose of inflicting a wound on each to see which of their poisons was the most 
deadly. The young men, unconscious of danger, happened to pass the thicket 
where the two snakes were in ambush, when all of a sudden the two reptiles sprang 
upon them and gave each of them a sting. The young man who was bitten by the 
natawa instantly dropped dead from the effects of the poison, while the other had 
time to run to his father's tent, which, when he had reached, a noted medicine man 
applied a powerful antidote to the wound and he recovered in a few days. 

After the deed was done the natawa snake was grieved and enraged at the rattle- 
snake by whose guile he had been instrumental in bringing death and sorrow to 
mankind. 

* Brother,' said the natawa to the rattlesnake, ' you have been the cause of bringing 
death and misery to mankind by your envious and evil designs, therefore, you shall 
ever after this have a rattle in your tail to warn every human being who approaches, 
you of your hateful presence, and the human race shall pursue you to death.' 

The old chieftain, whose son had died of the poison, brought the body home, and 
with his tribe performed the burial ceremony. Every day the old chieftain repaired 
to the grave of his beloved son, and mourned his loss bitterly. The friends of the 
old man endeavored to console him in his grief, but he would not even speak to them. 

During one of his daily visits to the grave of his son he saw an enormous snake 
striped with various colors lilce the rainbow ascending out of the earth, who thus 
addressed him: 'Old man of the plain, I command you to appear at this spot on the 
third day following this, and you must implicitly follow my directions and obey my 
commands. Then shall appear to you a snake on this very spot, he shall be sent by 
the gods. You will elevate the serpent three times by the horns, and at each time 
you raise him you shall repeat the words of adoration to the snake by saying Xe Kau, 
ne Kau, Ka nah. Ka, Ka, nah. Oh! oh! oh!' Immediately after you have per- 
formed, the snake shall appear to you as a manitou of your race, who will teach j^ou 
the ceremony of the Metawin or the tent of life, and reveal to you the mysterious 
rites which come from the happy hunting grounds, and from the centre of the earth, 
and from the depths of the waters. The spirits take pity on your sorrows, and will 
help you if you obey them. Adieu my son, you will point to the centre of the heavens, 
the centre of the earth, and to the four abodes of the spirits with your pipe stem, 
while I slide down the perpendicular rock of our abodes. 

At that instant the snake disappeared downwards with a tremendous hissing^ 
sound, caused presumably by the rapidity of his descent. 

According to the instructions of the great snake the old man repaired to the grave 
of his son on the third day, and after pointing his pipe stem to the centre of the sky, 
and the earth, and the four winds, presented the offerings of the dead, then sat down, 
facing the body of his son, who according to Indian custom, was placed in the grave 
in a sitting posture with his face towards the east. At that instant he heard a 



1911.] Skinner, The Northern Saidteaux. 159 

rumbling noise, and, lo, an enormous serpent appeai-ed before him, liaving two horns, 
and whose jaws contained two rows of large teeth. 

The serpent lay down and twisted itself into a cii'cle around the gi-ave. The old 
chieftain arose from his seat and took the serpent by the horns and elevated it three 
times, at each time repeating the magic words 'Ne Kau, Kau nah, Ka Ka, nah.' 
At the third time the serpent changed its shape into that of a venerable old man with 
white hail-, having a rod or wand in his hand, together with the fire bag of life made 
of the skin of the deadly natawa which contained the magic bead. He thus addressed 
the old chieftain. 

'I have come to comfort and console you for the death of your son. 1 he spirits 
of the earth, the wind, and the water have seen your sorrow, and I am sent to your 
race to show you the way of life which you will teach to j^our children, and which shall 
continue to the end of time. Now, therefore, light your i)ipe, and with your stem 
point to the sky, the abode of the Great Spirit, who shall give you life, to the abode 
of the spirits of the centre of the earth, whose wiU is to teach you the virtue of all 
herbs, and to the four winds who will protect you and give you power and success.' 

After the old chieftain had completed pointing with his pipe stem to the sky, 
earth, and air, he offered his ghostty visitor the pipe, but the old man raised his wand 
and touched the mouthpiece, when, immediately was heard the tapping of a drum. 
After three knocks of this mysterious sound the old man commenced to repeat the 
following, 'Ne Kains, ne Kains, ne Kains, Kau nah, na ka nah.' He then chanted 
a song, of which the following is a translation: 

'I come from the east. 
Where the long tent does rest. 
The Great Spii-it does say. 
Perform these rites alway.' 

After chanting this medicine song for some tune, the old man sat down near the 
chieftain, and taught him the ceremonies and rites of the long tent of life, which 
occupied some daj's, the Indians say the moon changed once during the time that 
the old chieftain was receiving his instructions in all secrets of the tent of life. After 
the old chieftain had been fully in.structed his preceptor said: 

'I will bless you with long life, and you shall have more sons, but forget not my 
instructions. I leave you this bag of natawa skin and the magic bead, and this wand. 
Beware, pollute not my tent of life. Adieu my son, I go hence, but I shall hear you 
when you chant the mj-steries I have taught you.' Sa.ving this the white-haired 
spiritual adviser vanished from the gaze of the old chieftain. 

After some months, when the old chieftain's mourning was over, and after 
celebrating a feast with his tribe, he commanded that all males .should assist him in 
building the long tent of life. During the evenings he employed himself in teaching 
the males of his tribe to sing the mysteries imparted to him by his spiritual teacher, 
and after having succeeded in giving them sufficient knowledge in all the rites and 
ceremonies pertaining to the tent of life, he appointed the various officers to the tent, 
but he, himself, was Grand Master. 

During this time, which took several years to accomplish, the old chief was 
gladdened bj' having a .son born to him, the very image of the one who died by the 
sting of the natawa."^ 

• Stewart. 9.5-97. 



160 Anthropological Papers American Museum, of Natural History. [Vol. IX, 

The Northern Saulteaux concept of the Hereafter is, that there are two 
roads leading into the sky. One road is traversed by the souls of the good 
who travel there as fast as a bird can fly, immediately on leaving the body. 
Evil doers travel the other road on foot, very slowly and at last come to 
an evil place from which they cannot escape. Sometimes, however, bad 
persons are permitted to return after reaching this spot, as a warning to 
themselves and others to mend their ways. This is how the Saulteaux know 
about the Hereafter. Good persons who die never return. The Saulteaux 
do not remember what becomes of the souls of suicides and drowned persons, 
they are ciuite sure however, that still-born infants go to the same place as 
the others. There is a strong possibility that missionary influence has 
altered the original beliefs. 

Doctors and Medicines. The Northern Saulteaux seem to be less ac- 
quainted with medicines and simples than the Eastern Cree. They also 
seem to rely more upon supernatural means than upon actual medicines 
for the curing of diseases. As a general thing, the physicians of these 
people may be di\i(led into two classes; first, the purely shamanistic "con- 
jurors," who must belong to one of the four degrees of the midewin. These 
men, as has been stated above, depend almost entirely upon their super- 
natural power to ciu'e their patients. While doctoring a patient, the shaman 
remained outside the lodge and never carried on his incantations within. 
In some instances, herbs, barks, and stones, etc., procured by supernatural 
means, or gathered according to directions received in dreams are used. 
Such medicines have absolutely no value except to the shaman himself, 
for he alone knows the uses of his remedies, for what diseases they are 
intended, and how to apply them. One method of obtaining these drugs 
is to set out a munber of empty vessels or bark wrappers and then to retire 
to some secluded spot where the night is spent in song and prayer, accom- 
panied by the l)iu'ning of tobacco incense and the music of the drum. A box 
of medicines so acquired (Museum No. 50-8120), was obtained at Fort Hope. 
It was placed out in the woods to rot, when its owner, a noted shaman, died. 
In the morning a second person sent to the spot returns with the vessels 
all of which are filled with remedies, the use of which is vouchsafed to the 
shaman alone. Carved wooden dolls, used in medicinal practices are known 
to be in the possession of shamans, but tletails of their appearance or use 
could not be learned. The False Face society of the Iroquois and Delaware, 
once found among the Missisauga band of the Ojibway was never known 
to the shamans of the Northern Saulteaux. Beside the shamanistic doctors, 
there is a second class of healers, generally old women, who so far as could 
be learned use no supernatural means whatever in performing their cures. 
They rely on pm'ely physical boluses, both internal and external. A col- 



1911.] Skinner, The Northern Saultcaux. 161 

lection of these, as far as possible was obtained at Fort Hope on Lake 
Eabamet, from a famous medicine woman residing there. This list with 
several additional prescriptions obtained elsew^here was as follows: — 

Diarrhoea, black willovv, boiled and liquor taken internally. 

Constipation, enema, see description below. 

Dyspepsia, mint mixed with tea, boiled and mixed together, taken 
internally. 

Bronchitis, etc., country tea, boiled and liquor taken internally. 

Diphtheria, sore throat, spruce cones, held in the mouth and sucked. 

Scrofula, spruce cones, boiled and liquor taken internally. 

Cuts, cedar bark, inner and outer bark dried, scraped, and mixed to- 
gether, saturated with fat and placed on wound. 

Cuts and sores, balsam gimi, placed over wounds and allowed to dry on. 

Broken l)ones, first set, and bound with light splints until the wound 
stiffens, then light splints removed and hea\ier ones replaced.' 

In cases of constipation, an enema is injected. A bone tul^e is fastened 
to a bag made of a fish or rabbitskin. In making this instriunent the hair is 
plucked off the skin, the legs tied up, the skin blown up and cdlowed to dry, 
forming a water-tight translucent bag. This is kept folded up with the 
tube attached until needed, when it is filled with water mixed with grease 
and fish liquor. The tube is greased and forced into the aboral opening 
and the water injected by gently pressing the bladder. For toothache and 
headache, a cross is tattooed on either cheek (p. 124), and for rheumatism 
the same thing is done on the leg and arms. In former times, fees were 
paid for successful cures, but this practice is no longer continued. 

Pneumonia, consumption, and La Grippe are the best known and most 
fatal diseases to the Northern Saultcaux. In spite of their great immorality, 
syphilis and gonorrhea are almost unknown. They have been swept 
with measles in the early ninety's, but have not yet had smallpox. 

Insanity is by no means unknown. Instead, however, of regarding 
idiots as being under the special protection of the spirits, they ar<> thaught 
to be possessed of devils and are accordingly killed by shooting or strangling 
and their Ijodies burned. Formerly, they were Inu-ned ali\'e and it is 
strongly suspected that this is still occasionally done. Owing to the hard 
life led by these people, cripples and deformed persons are frequent. 

The sudatory or sweating lodge is at present used medicinally but never 
ceremonially by the Saultcaux. Long, however, sometimes mentions its 
use as part of a ceremony preliminary to adoption.^ It is a sovereign 
cure for all diseases. After the lodge has been put up, a fire is built outside 

1 Long, 74. 



162 



Anthropological Papers American Museum of Natural History. [Vol. IX, 



near by and a lot of pebbles are heated. These must be granite, as the 
Indians say no other stones will answer the purpose. When the}' are as hot 
as possible they are carried into the lodge by means of pliable green sticks 
or withes bent about them in order to form a handle. Prior to bringing 
them in a lot of small cold stones are placed on the floor of the lodge for if 
the hot rocks were laid directly on the grovmd they would soon get cold. 
The hot stones are then placed in a circle directly in the center of the lodge, 
a bare space being left all about them for the patient 
to kneel upon. The patient takes the stones up with 
a withe as abo\e described and drops water upon them 
one at a time until they are all cold, when he comes 
out sweating profusely. If it is summer he takes a 
cold plunge, Init in the winter he simply sits naked in 
the wind until he is cooled oft". 

Hunting Customs. The animal to whom the Saul- 
teaux show the most consideration, if not \'eneration, 
is the black bear. When an Indian catches a bear in 
his trap, a few words of apology and explanation are 
addressed to the animal which is then killed and dressed 
up in all the finery obtainable, and is laid out to look 
like a human being. A Saulteaux at Sandy Lake, 
not far from Dinorwic, gave the following reasons for 
this custom. "The bears have a king, or chief, and the 
orders of this chief must be obeyed. Sometimes he 
orders a bear to go to an Indian trap. When a dead 
bear is dressed up it is done as an offering or prayer 
to the chief of the bears to send more of his children 
to the Indians. If this were not done, the spirit of the 
bear would be offended and would report the circum- 
stance to the chief of the bears who would pre\ent the 
careless Indians from catching more." When an Inchau 
eats a bear he puts up a pole upon which are hung the 
skin of the animal's muzzle, his ears, skull, and offerings 
of tobacco and ribbons. The pole shown in Fig. 56 
was erected by Babiwash, a Lac Seul Saulteaux, in 
June, 1909. He refused to sell the pole or any of the 
objects upon it for fear that the next bear he met would 
attack him. On the lower part of the pole the bark 
was allowed to remain intact, but at inter\-als of about 
three feet peeled spots about a foot in length were 
rubbed with red ocher. The skull, ears, and skin of the muzzle were 
fastened on with offerings to the spirit of the dead bear. 




Fig. 56. A bear 
Pole. Drawn from a 
Photograph. 



1911.] Skinner, The Northern Saulteaux. 163 

At Sandy Lake, the writer saw an old Saulteaux woman take the shoulder 
blade of a bear and make transverse marks across it with charcoal, each bar 
meaning a praj'er for a successful year of life for the slayer. This should 
have been hung on the bear pole but was obtained by the writer before the 
pole was erected 

Some of the Saulteaux claim that in erecting the bear pole the skull 
should be painted with charcoal, but with no other pigment. Tobacco 
should be hung at the center of the pole and the skin of the bear's chin 
should also be suspended from it. As these customs were found only among 
the most northern of the bands, it is very possible that together with the 
custom of calling the bear by several names, it was derived from their near 
neighbors, the Eastern Cree. The bear's skull is not painted, as is the 
custom among the Eastern Cree, nor is it kept in the house of the slayer 
before hanging it up, nor do the Saulteaux ever paint the bearskin inside. 
A bear which for any reason is not eaten after it has been killed is not 
honored in this way. Bears' bones are never given to the dogs but are 
hung out of their reach. Bear poles are very frequently seen on the journey 
from Lac Seul to Lake St. Joseph on deserted camp sites but are not found 
north of this. 

Near Lake Abittibi, we find the following : — " On one of the islands we 
discovered two Indian huts, but from their appearance no person had 
visited them for a length of time. About half a mile from the place we 
saw a high pole, daubed all over with vermilion paint; on the top were 
placed three human skulls, and the bones hung round: The Indians suppose 
that it had been erected many years." ^ 

The tongue and heart of the bear may not be eaten by women. In the 
event of a bear being killed by a member of a camp, the slaj'er always re- 
ceives the brisket, head, and heart, as his portion. This is true of other 
large game. A young man who has killed his first bear or other big game 
has a feast made in his honor and sits up the entire night drumming and 
singing prayers for his future success. 

Should a man find a bear's winter den during the summer and desire to 
slay the animal the following winter, he takes a bullet from his pouch and 
after warning it not to tell anyone and to prevent others from finding the 
spot, he lays it by the hole, expecting it to guard his prize until he returns. 
Bears slain in their lairs in winter should never be shot, but rather knocked 
on the head with a club. According to the Saulteaux, when the bear makes 
his hole, he takes all kinds of animals with him to live on in the winter. 
They, however, belie\'e that if he takes them from the territory covered by 

1 Long, 161. 



l()-4 Antliropological Papers American Museum of Natural Hialory. [Vol. IX, 

the route of a single trapper, the man will have bad luck; but if he draws 
them from the trails of several trappers, no harm will be done. If the bear 
sees a trapper he may throw out game to him, counting on the man's mercy 
in return for his charity. If a man kills lean animals at the beginning 
of his winter's hunt it is a sign that he will kill a bear, but if the animals are 
fat he will not kill one. 

The Saulteaux admit that like the Eastern Cree they have various names 
for the bear, but they refuse to tell these to white people for fear that ill 
success will attend them. While the proper name of the bear is mukwuh, 
he is also known as oputowan, but the meaning of the latter term could not 
be found. 

The beai'ds of moose and portions of moose skin are hung on poles or 
trees to mark the spot where a moose has been killed. These are often 
observed when tra\eling, at deserted camps and other places where moose 
have been killed. On deserted camp sites on Lake St. Joseph, the writer 
saw the skulls of moose together with bears' ears, bird Avings, and skulls, 
and moose bones Inmg up on trees. 

The writer has also seen dogs fed with moose bones; but the bones of 
beaver, mink, otter, muskrat,. loon, and duck should be thrown back into 
the water whence they came, or hung on poles so that no animals, especially 
dogs, can get them, for if this happens, the Indians will not be able to catch 
them any more. None of these customs are as strong or as much observed 
towards the northern part of the Saulteaux range as they are in the south. 
A few years ago a raccoon was killed at Fort Hope. It was the only one 
the natives had ever seen. It was therefore considered to be an evil spirit 
and the flesh was burned. "While this custom has long fallen into disuse the 
clan or totem animal should be tabooed by members of that clan and their 
guardian animals are protected by the individuals to whom they are sacred. 



WAR. 



The Northern Saulteaux have not been at war with any tribe with the 
exception of the so-called "Little Crane," for a good many years and as most 
of the older men Avho remembered the old order of things, died during the 
La Grippe epidemic of the winter of 1908-9, Aery little information con- 
cerning this phase of their life could l)e obtained. As a matter of fact, the 
Northern Saulteaux were for the greater part beyond the reach of Sioux 
and Iroquois war parties on the south, and their friendly neighbors, the 



1911.] Skinner, The Northern Saulteaux. 165 

Eastern C'ree, formed a nortliern barrier between them and the Eskimo and 
Chipewyan. Stories of skirmishes with the "Little Crane" ^ are frequent. 
These clashes and reprisals formed a sort of guerilla warfare which existed 
up to the last few years. The Sioux formerly penetrated as far as Lac Seul, 
and a point on Lake Minnatakie is known as " Sioux Lookout" for it is said 
to have been used as a point from which the Saulteaux watched for the 
enemy. Pictographs in red on rocks near by are said to represent battles 
between the Sioux and Saulteaux. Sioux scalps are said to have played an 
important part in a medicine ceremony held at Lac Seul some fifty years ago. 

Armor was unknown to the Northern Saulteaux, nor were shields in use. 
Special war clothes of a type now obsolete w^ere worn. Bone-headed spears, 
clubs, and bows and arrows were the weapons used. The war dance 
preceded the going to war, and was accompanied by conjuring on the part 
of the shaman. "Warriors were trained to dodge and strike aside the arrows 
of the enemy and therefore had no use for shields. This training was 
formerly begun at a \ery early age. Prisoners of war were not maltreated 
but were either killed on the spot or adopted. Scalping was common; the 
entire skin of the scalp was removed instead of a small circular piece at the 
crown. Prior to going to war, the warriors invariably changed their names. 
The following formula for the actions of the mideo prior to a battle and 
description of the conflict was obtained from Wabus-inini, a very aged 
man residing at Fort Hope on Lake Eabamet : — - 

"When they went out to war, the head man called the warriors together 
at some secret spot in the forest which had been previously agreed upon. 
Then the chief looked over the warriors and determined whom he could 
rely upon. The shaman took his pipe and filled it and sent it through the 
air towards the enemy. Li the meantime, the enemy did the same thing. 
When the enemy's war pipe arrived, the chief and his party smoked it. 
^^^len the pipe was nearly empty, the shaman made it walk. Then the 
war party heard something making a noise, first in the east, then in the 
north, then in the south, and last of all in the west. Then the members 
of the party who had been sitting about in a circle watching the performances 
of the shaman, rose to their feet, and saw the thing which was making the 
noise. A bat would appear and from him they would leam the position 
and number of the enemy. Then the chief took the men he had picked 
out ij|id they approached the enemy. When they got in range, they com- 
menced to fire at each other and the arrows fell like snow. Tliere were 
many of them, for every man carried two hundred arrows to battle. They 
approached silently through the forest from tree to tree, and the only sound 



1 An unidentified tribe, perliaps an isolated band or even clan of the Eastern Cree, 
occupying the region lying north of Cat Lake. 



166 Anlhropological Papers American Museum of Xatural Hislory. \\o\. IX, 

to be heard was the crying out of the wounded. When the battle was over, 
the bodies of the enemy were scalped. Then the chief of the war party 
invited all the Indians for miles about to a feast and there was a dance. 
The wild animals came and devoured the-bodies of the slain." 

Before going to war, the shaman woukl take a piece of smoked glass and 
gaze into it for a time, and would then see the enemy in it and be able to 
tell their numbers and position. Another tribe with whom the Saulteaux 
warred were called the "Pawnuks". These people, whom the writer could 
not identify, came from the south. Although, as above stated, the North- 
ern Saulteaux have not been at actual war for a good many years, it is only 
recently that they ceased carrying their rifles with them when they go to 
the Posts to trade for fear of the "Little Cranes." 

Long says: — "The women and children sometimes go forward in their 
canoes singing the war songs, and encamp every evening at sun-set, having 
a great dislike to travelling in the dark. Forty-eight young warriors are 
placed, in four di\isions, to keep guard at night, armed with guns, bows and 
arrows, and some scotte wigwas, or fire bark, to light in case of sudden sur- 
prise."^ 



MORTUARY CUSTOMS. 

Burials were formerly of three kinds: subterranean, tree, and scaffokL 
Under certain circumstances, cremation was resorted to occasionally. In 
the case of subterranean burials, the body was washed and laid out straight, 
not drawn up, or flexed. A shallow hole, the length of the person, was dug 
and lined with bark. The weapons and utensils of the deceased were 
placed in the grave at the head of the body, which was wrapped in bark. 
Sometimes the utensils were hung on a pole or on a tree at the head of the 
grave. If the dead man was a mideo, his medicines were always treated 
in this manner. Kohl says that the Ojibway dwelling north of Lake Supe- 
rior have a custom of taking the corpse of a person who died in the wigwam 
out through a hole made in the side of the house instead of through the door.^ 
As soon as the body was interred the father, mother, sister, brother, wife, 
husband or some other near relative of the deceased built a fhe near the 
grave. A kettle was at once boiled over this fire for the use of the spirit 
of the departed on its way to the hereafter. This performance was some- 
times observed daily for as long as a month after the interment. Sometimes 

1 Long, 79. 

2 Kohl, 149. 



191 1-] Skinner, The Northern Saultenux. 1G7 

the mere convention of placing firewood and matches by the grave was all 
that was gone through. In more recent days a small angular roof of bark 
was built o^-er the grave. This type of burial was the common form among 
the more northerly bands excepting that there the grave roof or house was 
omitted, a pole with a flag made of a strip of cloth was erected at the head 
of the grave. Young mentions that an old Saulteaux man who died in the 
winter was buried under his wigwam as the ground outside was frozen too 
hard to permit the Indians to dig into it. The spot chosen was where the 
fireplace had been, for here the ground was softest. The wigwam was 
removed after the interment.^ Judging from the conditions under which 
skeletons of New York Coastal Algonkin on Long Island and Staten Island, 
the writer has come to this conclusion independently concerning the local 
natives. - 

" Skeletons are sometimes found in shell or fire pits, and this may perhaps 
be accounted for by the fact that, if the death occurred in winter wlien the 
ground was frozen, digging graves with the primitive tools at the connnand 
of the Lenape was a serious if not impossil)]e matter; hence, the corpse 
may have been placed in a refuse pit and covered with debris, an easier 
process than grave digging." 

Again, bodies were carefully wrapped up in bark and placed on a scaffold. 
The arms, utensils, etc., of the corpse were hung on a pole beside the grave. 
The tree burial closely resembled the latter form, save that the body was 
placed among the branches of a tree instead of upon a scaffold. 

South of the Saulteaux region near the Lake of the Woods, Mr. Jabez 
Williams, now manager for the Hudson's Bay Company, at Fort Osnaburgh, 
on Lake St. Joseph, informs the writer that he found an ()jil)way burial 
of a different type. On the cross beams of a deserted cabin a wooden box, 
or coffin, was discovered. There wei"e six or eight holes in the co\Tr of the 
box directly over the mouth of the corpse to let the spirit escape. Inside, 
the body was carefully wrapped in bark. 

No dift'erence in the method of burial of still-born infants, suicides, and 
drowned people could be learned, although, especially in the latter case, 
many old people were strongly of the opinion that there was a special order 
of burial observed. Insane people were usually burned alive, but in more 
recent times, they have been shot or strangled and then cremated. 

When a death occurs in a lodge it is at once deserted by its occupants. 
Sometimes, among the more southern bands, at least, eight or ten shots are 
fired to announce the death. The body is buried as quickly as possible. 
The widow lets her hair hang loose and tears it hysterically, while she 



1 Young, 220. 

2 This series, Vol. 3, 50. 



I(l8 Antlu'opolotiicdl I'apers Auicrican Miisiutu of Nalaral llislory. [^'ol. IX, 

shrieks and wails, but, at present, at least, she does not scarify herself. 
She may not marry again for a year. As soon as the body is interred, the 
neighbors enter the lodge and take possession of all the belongings of the 
deceased. A dying shaman would often connnand that his house and 
especially all his personal effects be burned after his death. The medi- 
cines, the use of which were only known to him, and which he used by 
means of his personal magic were cached at a secret spot on a distant 
island. 



NORTHERN SAULTEAUX TALES. 

The following tales were obtained at INIartens Falls Post on the All^any 
River. 

Omishus. 

There was once a man and his wife who had two children. They were 
both boys. The man was a great hunter and used to kill a good many deer. 
Often, when he came home from the chase he would find his children had 
been crying all day. He asked his wife, "What are our children crying 
about?" The woman replied, "When I leave them in the tent while I go 
to get firewood, they alwaj's start to cry." But the man did not believe 
it and made up his mind that he would watch his wife and find out what she 
did to the little ones in his absence. 

One day, he pretended to set out but he did not go very far. Then he 
returned. After he was gone, the woman dressed herself, combed her hair, 
and went out of the wigwam carrying her ax. The woman went over to a 
big tree. She pounded on the tree with the ax. Immediately, a man came 
out of the tree. He took the woman in his arms, et longe cum ea concubit 
so that she did not go home to her children, for totem diem concubuit. 
After the man saw what his wife was doing he went away. He killed a deer, 
and returned to his lodge. 

He told his wife to get the deer and bring it home. After she had gone, 
he put on her dress and took up her ax and went out. He went to the 
famous tree and pounded on it. The man came out again and he killed him, 
and cut off his head. He took a little blood. Then he started to cook the 
man's blood mixed with deer's blood. After a time, his wife came home 
with the carcass of the deer he had killed. He gave her some of the man's 
blood and vension to eat. After she had finished her meal, he inquired, 



1911.] " Skinner, The Northern SauUeaiix. 169 

"How did that blood taste?" She rephed, "This is deer's blood." "Xo, 
that is }-our paramour's blood you have been eating," refjlied the husl)and. 
Then he killed her too. 

He cut off her head, and went away, deserting his children. The younger 
child began to cry and continued to weep. Then he went to his mother's 
body trying to get nourishment from her dead breasts. While he was doing 
this, the woman's head began to move and her eyes opened. This frightened 
the children terribly and they ran away. As they ran, they heard soniethino- 
following. It was their mother's head rolling after them. The head nearly 
caught up to them. Then the oldest boy threw a needle on the trail behind 
them. The head came to this and stopped for a while, so the children got 
a long start. At last, the head, all smeared with blood, caught up to them 
again. Then the oldest lad threw away his comb behind them. 

"Let this be a high mountain," cried the child. Sure enough, a great 
mountain sprang up and crossed the trail. At last, the children came to a 
river, where they saw swans swimming. They wished to get across and 
begged the swans to save them as there was a Windigo (Cannibal) chasing 
them. A swan came o\er and took the boys across. He told them not to 
sit near his neck as they rode across for he had a scab there. After he had 
ferried the children over the swan continued to swim about the river. 

At length, the head came to the river, and began to roll backward and 
forward along the shore seeking to get over. The head saw the swan and 
called out, "Take me across the river." The swan said, "No." Then the 
head said, "Those are my children that went across the river." Then the 
swan said, "No, the children said that a Windigo was following them." So 
the head repeated, "Those are my children, take me across, and when you 
have done so, licet mecum coire." The swan replied, "Quo modo tecum 
coeam, cum corpus tibi absit?" Caput dixit, "Per foramen magnum." 

The s\\an agreed and started to take the head across. He told the head 
not to touch his neck on account of the scab, and started to ferry it across. 
The head started to rul) the swan's neck and this hurt him, he spread his 
wings and shook them until the head fell into the ri\-er and was drowned. 

Although the ri\-er was ^'ery broad, the two children threw stones across 
from the otlier side. The little chap began to cry again, so the eldest 
brother found a nice round stone and ga\e it to him. They threw their 
stones at it. One of them hit it and it sank out of sight. While they were 
playing they saw a sturgeon leap out of the water. It seems the head had 
been turned into a sturgeon. That is why the sturgeon has fleshy cheeks 
unlike other fish. 

While they were playing at the edge of the water, they saw someone 
approaching in a canoe. He came ashore and stood in the canoe looking 



170 Anthropological Papers American Museum of Natural History. [\'ol. IX^ 

at the boys for a little while. Then the man wished one of the stones would 
fall in his canoe. The next stone did fall in his canoe. It was the nice 
round stone which the oldest boy had given to the little one when he cried 
The oldest one cried out to the man, " Bring us that stone, so that my little 
brother may have it to keep him from crying." The man told the oldest 
brother to come over and get the stone himself. The boy came to get the 
stone, and the man tripped him with his paddle so that he fell in his canoe. 
Then, the old man whose name was Omishus, pounded on the bottom of his 
canoe with his paddle, and off it went without paddling. 

The youngest boy began to cry because he had been left behind, but 
Omishus left him to his fate. Then Omishus came to his tent. He pulled 
his canoe ashore and turned it over. Then he went into his lodge. He had 
two daughters who were waiting for him. He said to the oldest one, " I 
have brought a man with me, you had better go and see him." So the girl 
went out to see the young man. She looked under the canoe, but as soon 
as she saw him, she decided that he was too homel\', and she would n't 
marr\- him. When she returned to the wigwam, Omishus asked her, 
"\Yhat do you think of my guest?" "He is too ugly," replied the girl. 
Then Omishus told his youngest daughter that she had better go and see 
his captive. "He was good looking when I took him in the canoe," said 
he, "he has been crWng a great deal, that is what makes him ugly." The 
youngest daughter went do^Ti and washed away the tear marks from the 
young man's face, dressed him up, and married him. 

The young man stayed with Omishus for a long time and his wife became 
the mother of two children. One day, the young man said to his father-in- 
law, " I wonder where we could get some gulls' eggs'?'.' The old man replied 
that he would show him a fine place. They took their bows and arrows 
and off they started in the canoe. At last, they came to the place where the 
gulls were on an island. "There are the gulls," cried the yotmg man. 
"^Yell," said Omishus, "go over across where the big ones are." The 
young man at once took his bow and arrows and started over to get some 
eggs. 

As soon as the young man was well ashore, the old man pounded on the 
canoe bottom with his paddle and off it went. "Here you are, gulls," he 
cried, "I give yoti my son-in-law to eat." The deserted son-in-law saw a 
very large gull flying towards him. It approached the young man meaning 
to kill him, but he cried out, " I "m not the right kind of food for gulls, fly 
over the old man's canoe." 

The old man was lying back in his magic canoe looking at the sky, 
pounding on the canoe bottom all the time. " When you are directly over 
the old man, void your excrement full in his face," cried the young chap. 



1911.] Skinner, The Xorthem Saulteaux. 171 

The old man jumped and cried, "Phew I that's the kind of smell the excre- 
ment of the gulls has after they have eaten my son-in-law." 

Then the young man killed the great gull and cut off its head. He took 
it home with some gulls' eggs. He gave each of his children an egg and he 
told them, " When your grandfather arrives, go down to meet him and eat 
your eggs at the same time." At length, the old man came. The two 
children went down to meet him, eating their eggs, as they were told. 
When the old man saw them eating the eggs, he asked, "Where did you get 
those eggs'?" "Our father brought them to us," said they. "Poor chil- 
dren," said the old man, "the gulls have long ago eaten up your father." 

When the old man had landed he went straight to his camp and there 
sat his son-in-law inside the A\-ig\^-am with the head of the big gull beside 
him. The wicked old man was surprised, for the gull was the embodi- 
ment of one of his clreams. The oldest girl was now frightened and 
wished she had married her brother-in-law and cast many looks at him. 
The old man observed this, and said to her, "^^'hy are you looking at your 
brother-in-law so hard? Go and sit by his side." Xow, the young man 
had two wives. 

The young man said, one day. " I wonder where I could get a sturgeon to 
make glue?" "I'll show you," said the old man, so off they went together. 
"There is a sturgeon," cried the young man. The old man said, "Xo, that 
is not a good one. He has not got good isinglass. We will go farther on." 
At last, they came to a place where there were plenty of sturgeon. The old 
man said to his son-in-law, " You stand on the gimwales of the canoe with 
your bow and arrow to look for sturgeon." At length, they came to very 
deep water, and the old man pounded hard on his canoe. The canoe 
jumped ahead so quickly that the young man was thrown into the water. 
Then the old man cried out to the great snakes that live in the water, "I 
feed you my little son." The young man sank to the bottom and there he 
saw a great snake coming after him. "I am not the right food for snakes," 
said he. " Take me ashore." The snake had horns. The young man took 
hold of them and the snake ferried him ashore. " If you hear the thimder," 
said the snake, " tell me." The snake soon heard the thunder and he asked 
the young man about it, but the young man replied, "I see no clouds." 
At length, it thundered very close to them, and the snake heard it certainly 
and saw the lightning as well. This made the snake drop his burden and 
turn back. He splashed the water away up as he fled. The young man 
struggled ashore and reached home. He first killed some sturgeon. When 
he got home he told his wives to cook some of the meat. 

Then he told his children to go down to the water's edge and meet their 
grandfather. "Eat some of the sturgeon meat before him," he said. After 



172 AidhropoJogical Papers American Museum of Natural History. [Vol. IX, 

a while, their grandfather came back. The two children went down to 
meet him, eating some of the sturgeon meat as they were told When the 
old man saw them eating the sturgeon he asked, "Where did you get that 
sturgeon meat?" "Our father brought it to us," said they. "Poor 
children, the great horned water snakes have long ago eaten up your father." 
When the old man had landed he went straight to his camp, and there sat 
the young man inside the wigwam. The wicked old man was surprised 
for the horned water snake had been the embodiment of one of his dreams. 

One day, the yoimg man asked his father-in-law where they could get an 
eagle. They went off together. "There is an eagle," cried the young man. 
"No, come farther on," said the old man, " I know where there is a l)ig nest." 
At last the old man pointed out a nest, and left the young man there while 
he went over to it. The young man climbed the tree. When he was there 
the old man called out to the eaglets, "I feed you my son-in-law," and went 
away. The young man asked the two eaglets that were in the nest what 
their names were. He asked the female first, " Owatci," said she. The male 
bird said, "I am a tree as straight as you are when you stretch yourself." 
So he killed them both, and took them liome. Then the last of the old 
man's dreams had failed. The young man had the eaglets cooked and gave 
one of each to his children. He told his children to go down to the water's 
edge and meet their grandfather, "Eat the eaglets before him," he said. 

After a while their grandfather came back. The two children went down 
to meet him, eating the eaglets, as they w^ere told. When the old man saw 
them eating the eaglets he asked, "Where did you get those eaglets?" 
"Our father brought them to us," said they. "Poor children, the eagles 
ha"S'e long ago eaten your father." When the old man had landed he went 
straight to his camp and there sat the young man inside the wigwam. The 
wicked old man was surprised for the eaglets had been the embodiment of 
one of his dreams. "I wonder," said the young man one day in the winter, 
"where we can kill a caribou?" "I know," said the old man, "we will go 
to-morrow, I'll go with you." So off they went. They had to camp over 
night in a swamp. The old man told his son-in-law that the name of the 
swamp was (scorched-up-swamp, Jiteomuskeg). The young man, when he 
heard this thought, "Surely you want to burn my moccasins?" 

Then they went to bed. The fire nearly went out, but the old man got 
up and took his son-in-law's moccasins and leggings and burned them. 
Then the old man went back to bed and cried out, "Phoo! Yoiu* moccasins 
are burning." Then the young man laughed, "Those were your own 
moccasins you burnt. I changed mine for yours when you slept, and I 
saw you when you put them in the fire." 

In the morning, the voung man dressed himself and left Omishus and 



1911.] Skitiner, The Xorlhern SauUeaux. 173 

went home. He took his father-in-luw's canoe because one of his wi\-es 
could make it go as well as her father. After they crossed the sea, they left 
the canoe tied to a tree near the shore. The old man started to heat a stone 
in the fire, ^^^len it was hot he tried to roll -it through the snow to melt a 
path for his bare legs. It did not succeed. Then he rubbed charcoal on 
his legs. " I dreamt about caribou long ago, and I ought to be able to walk 
as they do on the snow without any trouble," said he. At last he reached 
the sea. Then he was very angry because his canoe was gone. He started 
to shout, "'Sly canoe, my canoe, my canoe I" His canoe heard and began 
to pull and move back and forth to get away. Then his son-in-law said 
to his wife, " You had better let the canoe go." She did and it went off to 
the old man and thev never s"aw him again. 



WisEkejack. 

Once WisEkejack was living with Wolf. Wolf was accustomed to hunt 
caribou e^•ery day. WisEkejack said to Wolf, " My nephew, I dreamed last 
night that if, when you are chasing caribou, you come to a creek, you need 
not jump across. Take a little twig and throw that ahead of you." 

When Wolf went hvuiting he got very close to the caribou. There was a 
creek between the cariljou and Wolf. It was a \'ery small creek, so narrow 
that Wolf could easily jump over. Wolf thought it was not worth while to 
throw the stick, and tried to jump. He fell in the middle of the creek and 
was drowned. 

By and by, WisEkejack began to miss Wolf and tracked him to learn 
what had become of him. The trail lead to the creek. WisEkejack looked 
on both sides of the creek but he could only find Wolf's tracks on the near 
side of the creek and not on the far side. AMien WisEkejack saw this, he 
sat down and began to cry, for he guessed what had happened. 

As WisEkejack sat there crying, along came Kingfisher. He caught 
Kingfisher and rubbed the top of his head. This made Kingfisher cry out, 
"I want to tell you something, I am looking for WisEkejack." Then 
WisEkjack said, "Come, tell me, and I will give you my handkerchief." 
WisEkejack gave his handkerchief to Kingfisher and himg it around his 
neck. (This accounts for the white band of the belted Kingfisher, the 
crest of the same bird was caused by WisEkejack when he rul)l)ed his head 
because the feathers were stroked the wrong way.) 

Kingfisher told WisEkejack, "The panther took away your Wolf." 
There were three panthers on that creek, they lived in the water and came 
out to bask when the sun was warm. 



174 Anihropological Papers Atnerican Museum of Natural History. [Vol. IX, 

WisEke'ack went to the edge of the water and stood there. Near by, 
there was a big spruce tree with a hollow inside. WisEkejack climbed into 
the hollow. While he was there, all of a sudden, a white panther came out 
of the water. The lion said, "Who is that standing there? That is surely 
WisEkejack." 

Then the panther came up to WisEkejack and put its tail around his 
waist and tried to pull WisEkejack into the water. He could not budge 
him at all. The panther said, "This seems to be no person, but a tree." 
Then all three of the panthers tried to pull WisEkejack into the water, one 
after the other. The last panther was the biggest and WisEkejack had a 
hard time to avoid being overcome. 

After this, the panther thought it was time to have a sleep on the rock. 
They used to sleep there all day, especially on hot days. WisEkejack 
decided to attack them while they slept. He took his bow and arrows with 
him and shot first at the big one. He hit the panther but he did not kill 
him, and all the panthers jumped into the water. 

Then WisEkejack, who had been in the water, came out and went away 
from there. After he had been walking for some time he heard someone 
coming towards him singing: — 

" Yiciwekwaki nishenawishkan. 
Yiciwekwaki nishenawishkan. 
Yiciwekwaki nishenawishkan." 
"Then end of the world, when I rattle." 

Very soon he saw some person approaching, so he went to meet him. 
This fellow had a drum on his back and a rattle in his hand, which he was 
using. Well, this person was Toad. 

"Where are you going?" asked WisEkejack. "I heard WisEkejack 
fire at the panther. I'm going to see the wounded panther and cure him 
with my medicine," replied Toad. "Let me see how you will cure him," 
said WisEkejack. Toad put down his drum and began to sing. He sat 
down and raised his rattle before him, shaking it transversely before his 
body. Then Toad bowed his head on his breast and sang. While he was 
doing this, WisEkejack knocked him on the head and killed him. Then he 
skinned Toad and put on his skin. Then he started back to see Panther. 
Wlaen he got there he commenced walking around the place where he shot 
Panther. He heard someone talking there. "Hello," said a lion. "I 
guess that is the man we wanted to come." So WisEkejack went into 
Panther's lodge. He saw the wounded panther lying down in his lodge. 
Panther was nearly dead, for WisEkejack's arrow was sticking out of his 
side. Panther gave WisEkejack some food, for they thought he was Toad. 



1911.] Skinner, The Xorthon SauKcaux. 175 

When WisEkejack had finished he found his assumed skin was (h'ving 
and tightening. He was afraid that he might be discovered, so he told the 
two uninjured panthers to go out and leave him with the sick one. " I don't 
like to have you see me make my medicine," he said, so they went out. 

Then WisEkejack went to the wounded panther and took him 1)\- the 
throat so he could not cry out. Then he took hold of the arrow and pushed 
it in until it killed him. Then he skinned Panther and cut the hide into a 
long thong. He stretched the thong back and forth across the lodge. 
After he had done this, he saw the skin of his friend. Wolf, in the lodge. 
He took it and w^ent away. WisEkejack told the other panther if they 
wanted to cure their comrade they must tap on the ground with a stick. 
It seems the panthers went into the sick room. When they saw the dead 
panther they cried out, "It seems W'isEkejack has killed our brother!" 
The panthers decided to kill WisEkejack by making a flood. They caused 
the waters to rise imtil he had no place to go. Then WisEkejack set out to 
tuild a raft. All the animals came to see WisEkejack on his raft, and got 
■on with him. 

At last, ;^ou could see nothing but water. So WisEkejack thought to 
himself, "I wonder if I could make any land?" He took a string and tied 
it to Beaver's tail and told him to swim down to the bottom and get some 
mud. "If you reach bottom pull the string like this," said WisEkejack, 
giving it several short jerks. The beaver w'ent down and soon began to 
pull on the string. WisEkejack pulled Beaver up hand over hand. When 
he got Beaver to the surface, he was drowned. So WisEkejack blew on 
Beaver and he came to life again. Then WisEkejack tried with Otter. 
Otter was also drowned, and WisEkejack brought him to life again also. 
Then he tried Muskrat. The rat went down further than either Beaver 
■or Otter. When WisEkejack pulled him up he too was dead, but WisEke- 
jack found he had mud on his head, mouth and hands, under his arms and 
between his legs. WisEkejack brought him to life in the same way that 
he did the others. Then he started to make land with the dirt Muskrat 
had brought up. He made it bigger and bigger all the time. At last, 
it was so big that there was room on it for all the animals. Then WisEke- 
jack told Crow to "fly around this land I have made and see how big it is." 
The crow went, but soon returned, saying it w'as too small. Then WisEke- 
jack told the crow to fly around once more. The Crow did so and reported 
that the earth was pretty big. But WisEkejack still tliought it was too 
small. Then he told Wolf, "Try to run around the earth and see how large 
it is." So Wolf said, "I'll go, l)ut if I never come back, this land will be 
big enough." Wolf never came back. 



1/G Anthropological Papers American Museum of Natural History. [Vol. IX, 



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1911.] Skinner, The Northern SauUeaux. 177 

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